Neurofibromatosis type 1 pathophysiology
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Moises Romo M.D.
Overview
Neurofibromatosis type 1 is an autosomal syndrome caused by a mutation in gene NF1 of chromosome 17, wich leads to a defective neurofibromin 1 protein. This mutation constitutes a phenotype with very pathognomonic features that are not always present; among them are the presence of Lisch nodules, neurofibromas, scoliosis, cognitive disabilities, vision disorders, multiple café au lait spots and epilepsy.
Normal physiology
Neurofibromin 1 (NF1) gene, is a large multi-domain protein, of approximately 250 KDa, containing 2,818 amino acids,[1][2] located in chromosome 17,[3] codes for the GTPase-activating protein, neurofibromin.[4][5] This protein, is a tumor suppressor expressed in many cells, primarily in neurons, glial, immune cells, endothelial cellls of the adrenal medulla, Schwann cells and early in melanocyte development.[6][7]
Neurofibromin works by downregulating the RAS/MAPK pathway, by accelerating hydrolisis and preventing cell proliferation.[5][6] [8][9]
Neurofibromin interacts cytoskeletal microtubular and microfilaments for proper neuronal development.[1][10]
Pathogenesis and genetics
Neurofibromatosis type 1 is an autosomal syndrome, although, roughly 50% of gene mutations arise from de novo events.[1]
The large size of the NF1 gene (350 kb with 60 exons) predisposes to a high mutation rate, with approximately one mutation occurring per 10,000 gametes.[11]
NF1 mutations lead to protein truncation (loss of neurofibromin expression), which in turn produces increased cell growth and survival through expression of RAS to ultimately increase chances for malignant transformation.[7][12][1]
More than 3,000 NF1 gene mutations have been recognised.[7]
Loss of neurofibromin leads to formation of skin lesions, tumours and skeletal abnormalities.[7]
Patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 syndrome have a higher incidence of GI, liver, lung, bone, thyroid, breast and ovarian cancers.[1][13]
Nerve sheath tumours can arise from benign neurofibromas and these compose the first cause of death in individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1.[1]
Patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 can present a wide variability of clinical features, even in the same family since mutation mechanisms are so vast. Interestingly, patients can present traits limited to a part of their body (mosaicism).[7]
Therapies are focused to inhibit RAS phenylation to block oncogenic RAS signalling.[1]
Associated conditions
- Neurofibromatosis type 2 is a genetic condition which may be inherited or may arise spontaneously. It is caused by NF2 gene(Merlin gene) mutation in chromosome 22 and presents with bilateral vestibular schwannomas(acoustic neuromas).[14]
Gross pathology
The most common non-neoplastic manifestations are cafe-au-lait macules, which is a very sensitive finding when they appear in large quantities.[7][15][16]
Dysplasia of the long bones and sphenoid wings, fractures, and pseudoarthrosis are common findings in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1.[16][17] They occur due to osteoblastic and osteoclastic dysfunction which lead to decreased mineralization.[7]
The defects in bone observed in individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1 are due to the loss of both copies of NF1 in osteoclasts and/or osteoblasts.Osteoblast dysfunction following NF1 loss results in an increased generation of pyrophosphate, which inhibits bone mineral (hydroxyapatite) production and bone mineralization, causing reduced bone density and a higher risk of bone fracture.[7][18]
Lisch nodules are hyperpigmented hamartomas of the iris, which are seen in 95–100% of adults with neurofibromatosis type 1.[16][17]
Neurofibromas are benign peripheral nerve sheath tumors that arise from Schwann cells, and represent the most frequent type of tumors in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1; they can be divided as dermal and plexiform neurofibromas.[7][19]
Optic gliomas are the most common brain tumors in neurofibromatosis type 1, they are observed in 15–20% of children younger than 7 years.[16][20]
Several types of cerebrovascular disease, including stenotic or occlusive disease, vascular dilatation or aneurysm, arteriovenous fistula, moyamoya syndrome, or vascular proliferation have been consistently found in biopsies of patients with neurofibromatosis type 1.[16][21]
Microscopic pathology
Cafe au-lait macules consist of a dense population of melanocytes with biallelic NF1 inactivation.[7][15]
Neurofibromas are benign peripheral nerve sheath tumors composed of neoplastic Schwann cells, fibroblasts, blood vessels, and mast cells.[16]
Optic pathway gliomas are composed of astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, neurons, microglia and progenitor or stem cells.[7][22]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Rad E, Tee AR (April 2016). "Neurofibromatosis type 1: Fundamental insights into cell signalling and cancer". Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 52: 39–46. doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.02.007. PMID 26860753.
- ↑ Seminog OO, Goldacre MJ (January 2013). "Risk of benign tumours of nervous system, and of malignant neoplasms, in people with neurofibromatosis: population-based record-linkage study". Br. J. Cancer. 108 (1): 193–8. doi:10.1038/bjc.2012.535. PMC 3553528. PMID 23257896.
- ↑ Upadhyaya, Meena; Cooper, David N. (2012). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32864-0. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ Peltonen S, Kallionpää RA, Peltonen J (July 2017). "Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) gene: Beyond café au lait spots and dermal neurofibromas". Exp. Dermatol. 26 (7): 645–648. doi:10.1111/exd.13212. PMID 27622733.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Trovó-Marqui AB, Tajara EH (July 2006). "Neurofibromin: a general outlook". Clin. Genet. 70 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1111/j.1399-0004.2006.00639.x. PMID 16813595.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Boyd KP, Korf BR, Theos A (July 2009). "Neurofibromatosis type 1". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 61 (1): 1–14, quiz 15–6. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2008.12.051. PMC 2716546. PMID 19539839.
- ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 Gutmann DH, Ferner RE, Listernick RH, Korf BR, Wolters PL, Johnson KJ (February 2017). "Neurofibromatosis type 1". Nat Rev Dis Primers. 3: 17004. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2017.4. PMID 28230061.
- ↑ Harrisingh, Marie C.; Lloyd, Alison C. (2014). "Ras/Raf/ERK signalling and NF1: Implications for Neurofibroma Formation". Cell Cycle. 3 (10): 1255–1258. doi:10.4161/cc.3.10.1182. ISSN 1538-4101.
- ↑ Wang, Yuan; Kim, Edward; Wang, Xiaojing; Novitch, Bennett G.; Yoshikawa, Kazuaki; Chang, Long-Sheng; Zhu, Yuan (2012). "ERK Inhibition Rescues Defects in Fate Specification of Nf1-Deficient Neural Progenitors and Brain Abnormalities". Cell. 150 (4): 816–830. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.06.034. ISSN 0092-8674.
- ↑ Dodd KM, Yang J, Shen MH, Sampson JR, Tee AR (April 2015). "mTORC1 drives HIF-1α and VEGF-A signalling via multiple mechanisms involving 4E-BP1, S6K1 and STAT3". Oncogene. 34 (17): 2239–50. doi:10.1038/onc.2014.164. PMC 4172452. PMID 24931163.
- ↑ Messiaen LM, Callens T, Mortier G, Beysen D, Vandenbroucke I, Van Roy N, Speleman F, Paepe AD (2000). "Exhaustive mutation analysis of the NF1 gene allows identification of 95% of mutations and reveals a high frequency of unusual splicing defects". Hum. Mutat. 15 (6): 541–55. doi:10.1002/1098-1004(200006)15:6<541::AID-HUMU6>3.0.CO;2-N. PMID 10862084.
- ↑ DeClue JE, Cohen BD, Lowy DR (November 1991). "Identification and characterization of the neurofibromatosis type 1 protein product". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88 (22): 9914–8. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.22.9914. PMC 52837. PMID 1946460.
- ↑ Friedrich RE, Schmelzle R, Hartmann M, Fünsterer C, Mautner VF (January 2005). "Resection of small plexiform neurofibromas in neurofibromatosis type 1 children". World J Surg Oncol. 3 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1477-7819-3-6. PMC 549083. PMID 15683544.
- ↑ "Neurofibromatosis type II - Wikipedia".
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 De Schepper S, Maertens O, Callens T, Naeyaert JM, Lambert J, Messiaen L (April 2008). "Somatic mutation analysis in NF1 café au lait spots reveals two NF1 hits in the melanocytes". J. Invest. Dermatol. 128 (4): 1050–3. doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5701095. PMID 17914445.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Cimino PJ, Gutmann DH (2018). "Neurofibromatosis type 1". Handb Clin Neurol. 148: 799–811. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64076-5.00051-X. PMID 29478615.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Clinical and genetic patterns of neurofibromatosis 1 and 2. | British Journal of Ophthalmology".
- ↑ . doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.10.048Get rights and content Objective Check
|doi=value (help). Missing or empty|title=(help) - ↑ Rodriguez FJ, Folpe AL, Giannini C, Perry A (March 2012). "Pathology of peripheral nerve sheath tumors: diagnostic overview and update on selected diagnostic problems". Acta Neuropathol. 123 (3): 295–319. doi:10.1007/s00401-012-0954-z. PMC 3629555. PMID 22327363.
- ↑ Lewis, Richard Alan; Gerson, L. Paul; Axelson, Kenneth A.; Riccardi, Vincent M.; Whitford, Randolph P. (1984). "von Recklinghausen Neurofibromatosis". Ophthalmology. 91 (8): 929–935. doi:10.1016/S0161-6420(84)34217-8. ISSN 0161-6420.
- ↑ Rosser, T. L.; Vezina, G.; Packer, R. J. (2005). "Cerebrovascular abnormalities in a population of children with neurofibromatosis type 1". Neurology. 64 (3): 553–555. doi:10.1212/01.WNL.0000150544.00016.69. ISSN 0028-3878.
- ↑ Bajenaru ML, Hernandez MR, Perry A, Zhu Y, Parada LF, Garbow JR, Gutmann DH (December 2003). "Optic nerve glioma in mice requires astrocyte Nf1 gene inactivation and Nf1 brain heterozygosity". Cancer Res. 63 (24): 8573–7. PMID 14695164.