Parkinson's disease pathophysiology
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
Overview
Pathophysiology
In the brain the direct pathway facilitates movement and the indirect pathway inhibits movement, thus the loss of these cells leads to a hypokinetic movement disorder. The lack of dopamine results in increased inhibition of the ventral lateral nucleus of the thalamus, which sends excitatory projections to the motor cortex, thus leading to hypokinesia.
There are four major dopamine pathways in the brain; the nigrostriatal pathway, referred to above, mediates movement and is the most conspicuously affected in early Parkinson's disease. The other pathways are the mesocortical, the mesolimbic, and the tuberoinfundibular. These pathways are associated with, respectively: volition and emotional responsiveness; desire, initiative, and reward; and sensory processes and maternal behavior. Disruption of dopamine along the non-striatal pathways likely explains much of the neuropsychiatric pathology associated with Parkinson's disease.
The mechanism by which the brain cells in Parkinson's are lost may consist of an abnormal accumulation of the protein alpha-synuclein bound to ubiquitin in the damaged cells. The alpha-synuclein-ubiquitin complex cannot be directed to the proteosome. This protein accumulation forms proteinaceous cytoplasmic inclusions called Lewy bodies. Latest research on pathogenesis of disease has shown that the death of dopaminergic neurons by alpha-synuclein is due to a defect in the machinery that transports proteins between two major cellular organelles — the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus. Certain proteins like Rab1 may reverse this defect caused by alpha-synuclein in animal models.[1]
Excessive accumulations of iron, which are toxic to nerve cells, are also typically observed in conjunction with the protein inclusions. Iron and other transition metals such as copper bind to neuromelanin in the affected neurons of the substantia nigra. So, neuromelanin may be acting as a protective agent. Alternately, neuromelanin (an electronically active semiconductive polymer) may play some other role in neurons.[2] That is, coincidental excessive accumulation of transition metals, etc. on neuromelanin may figure in the differential dropout of pigmented neurons in Parkinsonism. The most likely mechanism is generation of reactive oxygen species.[3]
Iron induces aggregation of synuclein by oxidative mechanisms.[4] Similarly, dopamine and the byproducts of dopamine production enhance alpha-synuclein aggregation. The precise mechanism whereby such aggregates of alpha-synuclein damage the cells is not known. The aggregates may be merely a normal reaction by the cells as part of their effort to correct a different, as-yet unknown, insult. Based on this mechanistic hypothesis, a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson's has been generated by introduction of human wild-type α-synuclein into the mouse genome under control of the platelet-derived-growth factor-β promoter.[5]
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Dopaminergic pathways of the human brain in normal condition (left) and Parkinson's disease (right). Red Arrows indicate suppression of the target, blue arrows indicate stimulation of target structure.
The symptoms of Parkinson's disease result from the loss of pigmented dopamine-secreting (dopaminergic) cells, secreted by the same cells, in the pars compacta region of the substantia nigra (literally "black substance"). These neurons project to the striatum and their loss leads to alterations in the activity of the neural circuits within the basal ganglia that regulate movement, in essence an inhibition of the direct pathway and excitation of the indirect pathway.
References
- ↑ "Parkinson's Disease Mechanism Discovered," HHMI Research News June 22, 2006.
- ↑ McGinness J, Corry P, Proctor P (1974). "Amorphous semiconductor switching in melanins" (Reprint). Science. 183 (127): 853–5. PMID 4359339.
- ↑ Jenner P (1998). "Oxidative mechanisms in nigral cell death in Parkinson's disease". Mov Disord. 13 Suppl 1: 24–34. PMID 9613715.
- ↑ Kaur D, Andersen J (2002). "Ironing out Parkinson's disease: is therapeutic treatment with iron chelators a real possibility?" (PDF). Aging Cell. 1 (1): 17–21. PMID 12882349.
- ↑ Masliah E, Rockenstein E, Veinbergs I; et al. (2000). "Dopaminergic loss and inclusion body formation in alpha-synuclein mice: implications for neurodegenerative disorders". Science. 287 (5456): 1265–9. PMID 10678833.