High density lipoprotein natural history, complications and prognosis

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aarti Narayan, M.B.B.S [2]; Raviteja Guddeti, M.B.B.S. [3]; Vendhan Ramanujam M.B.B.S [4]

Overview

While raising high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels through manipulating different regulatory mechanisms may either retard or accelerate atherosclerosis, low circulating levels of HDL-C have been associated with development of coronary artery disease, particularly if it is accompanied by other coronary risk factors.[1] HDL levels are also inversely related with diseases and complications involving the neurological, renal, and liver systems as well as sepsis and carcinoma.

Low High-Density Lipoprotein as a Prognostic Factor

  • Coronary artery disease
  • Atrial Fibrillation
  • Congestive Heart Failure
  • Post Cardiac Procedures
  • Chronic Kidney Disease
  • Carcinoma
  • Cirrhosis
  • Dementia
  • Kawasaki Disease
  • Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
  • Sepsis
  • Acute Ischemic Stroke

Coronary Artery Disease

The inverse relation of HDL to either the presence or development of coronary artery disease (CAD) is a well-established phenomenon.[2] Studies on different populations supported low HDL as a significant cardiovascular risk as well as a prognostic factor, either independently or along with other physical and biochemical metrics. Low levels of HDL-cholesterol, which may reflect increased catabolism of triglyceride-enriched HDL particles, appear to interact with hypertriglyceridemia to increase the coronary risk.[3][4] Plaque rupture, besides its correlation with high total cholesterol (TC), is also shown to be related to low HDL-cholesterol and an elevated TC/HDL-C ratio.[5] Studies on the relationship between low HDL levels and CAD are as follows

  • Based upon data from the Framingham Heart Study, the risk for myocardial infarction was found to increase by 25 percent for every 5 mg/dL (0.13 mmol/L) decrement in serum HDL-cholesterol, below the median values for both men and women.[6] According to the study the relative risk of death due to cardiovascular and coronary artery disease for men in the first HDL-cholesterol quintile (less than 35 mg/dL) as compared to the top quintile (greater than 54 mg/dL) is 3.6 and 4.1 respectively and for women the corresponding values were 1.6 and 3.1, comparing the bottom HDL-cholesterol quintile (less than 45 mg/dl) to the top quintile (greater than 69 mg/dl).
  • Lipoprotein and Coronary Atherosclerosis Study (LCAS) which studied patients with mild to moderate LDL-cholesterol elevation found that the patients who also had low HDL-cholesterol at baseline had more CAD progression than patients with higher HDL-cholesterol.[7]
  • Framingham Risk Assessment counts HDL values above 60 mg/dL (1.5 mmol/L) as a negative risk factor.[8]
  • Studies have shown that in patients with known coronary artery disease, HDL-cholesterol levels are predictive of coronary events over a broad range of LDL-cholesterol levels. The LIPID (Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischemic Disease) trial[9] and the CARE (Cholesterol and Recurrent Events) trial[10] have shown that reduced serum HDL-cholesterol levels strongly predicted acute coronary events in patients with LDL-cholesterol less than 125 mg/dL compared to those with levels above 125 mg/dL. There was a significant reduction in the event rate in patients with LDL-cholesterol <125 mg/dL for every 10 mg/dL rise in HDL-cholesterol compared to those with LDL-cholesterol levels more than 125 mg/dL. A similar relationship between the levels of HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol was also shown in the Treating to New Targets (TNT) trial.[11]
  • The finding of very low HDL levels among one-fifth of patients with NSTEMI ACS had added to a greater burden of atherosclerosis and a higher risk of mortality.[12]
  • A study in European population revealed that patients with at least one C allele (C+ carriers) along with low HDL represent a category of subjects at a higher risk for the development of acute myocardial infarction with a worse prognosis.[13]
  • A 2011 population based study with individual-participant-data (over 200,000 individuals) meta-analysis of 23 studies in the Asia-Pacific region revealed that a low level of HDL cholesterol was seen significantly more often in Asians than non-Asians (33.1 versus 27.0%). Even the prevalence of isolated low HDL-cholesterol was significantly higher in Asians (22.4 versus 14.5 %). In all individuals, there was a significant correlation between low HDL cholesterol and CAD events. Particularly in Asians, the isolated low levels of HDL cholesterol were strongly associated with CAD risk similar to low levels of HDL cholesterol combined with other lipid abnormalities. This study suggested that isolated low HDL cholesterol in Asians is a distinct phenotype, which is strongly associated with an increased risk of CAD.[14]
  • More recently low HDL-cholesterol was found to be the most powerful lipid parameter for predicting the risk and the clinical outcome of CAD in a Han Chinese population.[15]

While studies continued reporting the relation between HDL levels and CAD, the clinical importance of the different HDL subfractions remained uncertain. Many case-control and prospective studies later demonstrated that the HDL2 sub fraction and the plasma apo A-I concentration are better predictors of coronary atherosclerosis than total HDL-cholesterol or HDL3.[16] In contrast, the Physicians' Health Study and some other reports have shown similar associations of total HDL and HDL3 with coronary heart disease (CHD) as HDL2 and apo A-I.[17] This may reflect the importance of both HDL2 and HDL3.[6]

Despite all these evidence regarding the inverse relationship between levels of HDL-cholesterol and cardiovascular risk presented above, low levels of HDL-cholesterol have not been established as causative of this relationship or with the development of atherosclerosis.[18] This lack of causality relationship comes from Mendelian randomization analyses, and the difficulty in demonstrating improved outcomes with therapies to raise HDL-cholesterol. The absence of premature CAD in individuals with rare disorders such as Tangier disease, who have very low levels of HDL-cholesterol but not the predicted increase in cardiovascular disease, provides some support for the lack of association.[19] Early Mendelian randomized analyses found that genetically decreased HDL-cholesterol levels were not associated with an increased risk of CHD events and that genetically increased HDL-cholesterol levels were not associated with a decreased risk.[20][21] JUPITER trial showed that low HDL did not remain as an important predictor of cardiovascular risk after correcting the elevated LDL levels.[22] Studies published in 2012 in the field of HDL research have provided further evidence suggesting that a low HDL-cholesterol level, in the absence of related lipid or non lipid risk factors, is not associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease.[1] Thus clinician’s are left with only weak evidence to support whether or not to target treatment of HDL-cholesterol with pharmacological therapy.[23] Additional evidence that may explain why HDL-cholesterol may not be causal comes from the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) cohort.[24] In this study, the association between HDL-cholesterol and HDL particle number determined by NMR spectroscopy with carotid intimal medial thickness and coronary events were evaluated in a group of nearly 6000 individuals without known CAD who were not taking lipid-lowering medication. After adjusting for the known predictors of CAD, a significant inverse relationship between HDL particle and CAD risk persisted, but not with HDL-cholesterol. This study adds to the concept that the inverse relationship between HDL and cardiovascular risk may be determined more by some structural or functional component of the HDL particle than by its cholesterol content.

Cholesterol component is only one of many structural or functional components of the HDL particle. Thus, if low HDL-cholesterol level is found not to be causally associated with CAD, it is possible that other attributes of HDL could be causal. For instance, it is possible that some component of the HDL particle or one of its functions may protect against CAD events or atherosclerosis. The genetic determinants of this component or function may or may not be linked to the HDL-cholesterol composition of the HDL particle. As an example, two polymorphisms in phospholipid transfer protein are associated with increased concentrations of smaller, cholesterol-depleted HDL particles and a lower cardiovascular event rate.[25]

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) is integrally involved in high density lipoprotein metabolism.[26] CETP is directly associated with low density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and inversely associated with HDL-cholesterol concentrations. This is a potentially important observation since some have suggested that the association between CETP and CAD is attenuated after adjusting for HDL and LDL-cholesterol concentrations.[27] Polymorphisms such as I405V that reduce the activity of CETP typically increase plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations, although this has not been found consistently in all studies.[28]

In summary, HDL-cholesterol is a biomarker inversely associated with CAD risk, and it may still be considered in assessing patients’ CAD risk. However, HDL-cholesterol is not likely causally responsible for that risk relationship.

CAD in Pediatric Populations

In the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study, the extent of fatty plaques was closely associated with low HDL cholesterol concentrations.[29] Another prospective follow-up study in pediatric cardiac transplant recipients indicated that, although pravastatin improved the HDL2 concentrations in the treatment group, it failed to normalize serum triglyceride and prevent the progression of vasculopathy in some of the patients. It also suggested a predictive role of low HDL-C and high apoB-100/apoA-I ratio for the development of vasculopathy.[30]

Premature CAD

Premature CAD is usually defined as CAD in men less than 55 to 60 years of age and women less than 65 years of age. Numerous studies of the 20th century from both Middle East and US population have reported low HDL in over 19% to 52 % of premature CAD patients.[31][32][31][33][34][35] In Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study, post autopsy, a negative association of high HDL with both fatty streaks and raised lesions in the aorta and right coronary artery was seen, particularly after the age of 25. Post hoc analyses of two 21st century randomized trials have shown low HDL levels as predictors of coronary events in patients with known CHD. Analysis of 13,173 patients in the LIPID and CARE trials found that low serum HDL cholesterol was a significantly stronger predictor of CHD events in patients with an LDL-cholesterol <125 than ≥125 mg/dL (3.2 mmol/L).[36] For a 10 mg/dL (0.26 mmol/L) increase in HDL-cholesterol the event rate decreased by 29 percent in those with LDL-cholesterol <125 mg/dL (3.2 mmol/L) compared to 10 percent in those with an LDL-cholesterol ≥125 mg/dL (3.2 mmol/L). Post hoc analysis of the Treating to New Targets trial (TNT) in which nearly 10,000 patients with established CHD was treated with either high or low dose statin therapy revealed that HDL cholesterol levels were predictive of major cardiovascular events. This relationship was also observed among patients with LDL cholesterol levels below 70 mg per deciliter.[37]

Investigation of effects of baseline HDL cholesterol on the outcomes of 1032 patients who underwent drug-eluting stent implantation for acute coronary syndrome showed a higher rate of incidences of mortality and major adverse cardiac events at 30 days in low HDL than the high HDL cholesterol group. At 1 year, more deaths occurred in the low HDL cholesterol group and so did the major adverse cardiac events. Multivariate analysis finally showed that low HDL cholesterol is a key predictor of major adverse cardiac events and death at 1 year.[38]

But not all disorders associated with low HDL cholesterol are accompanied by a predisposition to premature CAD.[39] Examples in which there is not a strong association with atherosclerosis includes patients with LCAT deficiency,[40] and patients with the apo A-I Milano variant.[41]

CAD in Elderly

Low HDL in elderly age group (above 60 and 65 years in men and women respectively) is a known high risk factor of CAD.[42] Prevalence of around 70% of increased serum LDL cholesterol and 70% of decreased serum HDL cholesterol have been reported in elderly patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease.[43] The Framingham Heart Study and the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) also found that both high LDL and low HDL cholesterol levels were significant CHD risk factors in elderly subjects.[44][45] Low HDL in elders can also be a predictor of mortality in elderly CHD patients. In a prospective cohort study that included a total population of 2527 women and 1377 men, for each 1-unit increase in the total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio, a 17% increase in the risk of CHD death was reported.[46]

CAD in Women

Low HDL levels can be considered a prognostic factor of CAD in women. 40% to 50% of women classified as being at intermediate risk using the Framingham risk model were reclassified into either higher or lower risk categories, emphasizing the importance of HDL cholesterol level along with other factors in CHD development among women.

The Reynolds risk score was developed and validated using data available from nearly 25,000 healthy women followed up prospectively for incidence of CHD and stroke during a median of 10.2 years and it included HDL cholesterol levels along with other factors.[47]

Weight cycling (repeated weight loss and weight gain) in women is known to carry an increased risk of CHD death. This may be related to a significant reduction in HDL cholesterol concentration during each cycle.[48]

In postmenopausal women, the degree of coronary atherosclerosis has been linked to dysregulation of the TG/HDL metabolism. Subpopulations of both triglyceride rich and HDL lipoproteins have been found to be better predictors of CAD than triglyceride and HDL cholesterol concentrations.[49]

In women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), most studies have demonstrated low HDL cholesterol.[50][51] In one study , components of the metabolic syndrome including low HDL and insulin resistance appeared to mediate the association between PCOS and coronary artery calcification, independently of obesity.[52]

CAD in AIDS

An unfavorable lipid profile characterized by a low HDL level can occur in HIV positive patients. The lipid profile may further deteriorate after receiving protease inhibitor based treatment, leading to increased CHD risk.[53]

CAD and GH Deficiency

According to a study conducted on 665 adults with growth hormone deficiency, increased total and LDL cholesterol or low HDL cholesterol were reported in 22 to 45% of patients prior to their treatment.[54] More recently, increased mortality from cardiovascular causes was described in a large prospective trial involving 1014 hypopituitaric patients in the United Kingdom.[55] Hence, it can be hypothesized that low HDL can possibly be associated with higher risk of CAD particularly in growth hormone deficient patients.

CAD in Rheumatoid arthritis

Lipids in general, received only modest attention in the prognosis of CAD in rheumatoid arthritis all these days. With the exception of a single study,[56] most investigators agreed that total, LDL and HDL cholesterol and triglycerides are reduced in active rheumatoid arthritis compared to inactive disease, non-inflammatory arthritis or normal controls,[57] with an inverse correlation between the lipid values and the acute phase response. The low lipid profile may appear to be advantageous, except for the low HDL, which carries an adverse prognostic effect on CAD development and progression in rheumatoid arthritis patients.[17]

Post-CAD Treatment

Residual cardiovascular disease risk, defined as risk of recurrent cardiovascular disease events after management of coronary artery disease, may remain after treatment with statins and it may stem, at least partially, from low HDL cholesterol and/or elevated triglycerides.[58]

CAD in Experimental Models

The association between low HDL level and CAD prognosis can further be understood from experimental models. Both atherosclerotic lesion prevention and low HDL level associated preexisting atherosclerotic lesion regression have been demonstrated in transgenic mice or rabbits following expressions of high levels of human apo A-I,[59][60] by somatic gene transfer of apo A-I,[61] by administration of oral apo A-1 mimetic peptides[62] or by administration of apo A-I Milano, which is a natural variant of apo A-I.[63] Furthermore, liver-directed gene transfer of human apo A-I results in significant regression of pre-existing atherosclerosis after four weeks.[64]

Atrial Fibrillation

Four and a half years follow-up of 4544 individuals who met the criteria for metabolic syndrome approved by the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, revealed that 265 patients developed atrial fibrillation. The risk of developing atrial fibrillation was significantly greater in those individuals with metabolic syndrome. In the absence of elevated triglycerides, the risk of developing atrial fibrillation was found to be higher among patients with low HDL cholesterol, hypertension, obesity, and impaired glucose tolerance.[65]

Congestive Heart Failure

A prospective evaluation of the prognostic relationship of HDL levels in patients with severe heart failure was conducted by examining 132 consecutive patients. This study revealed that lower HDL levels correlate with worse prognosis and higher mortality independently of the etiology of the heart failure.[66]

Post Cardiac Procedures

HDL cholesterol is an important predictor of survival in post-CABG patients. In a study involving more than 8500 patients with years of follow-up, HDL cholesterol was found to be the most important metabolic predictor of post-CABG survival. Approximately one third of the patients survived at 15 years when their HDL levels were ≦35 mg/dL at the time of CABG. Therefore, the measurement of HDL cholesterol provides a compelling strategy for the identification of high-risk subsets of patients who undergo CABG.[67]

Low HDL cholesterol is also an independent predictor of the long-term outcome after coronary artery stenting. The combination of low HDL cholesterol and elevated inflammatory markers identified the high-risk patients.[68]

Isolated low serum HDL-cholesterol is also a risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease and may contribute to the development of saphenous venous graft disease.[69]

Chronic Kidney Disease

In a study involving a European population where 176 chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients were followed up for 84 months, low HDL cholesterol levels, diabetes and hypertension were found to be associated with reduced GFR. The HDL cholesterol level was the only lipid parameter that was found to affect the progression of CKD independently of the presence of diabetes. Hence, a low level of plasma HDL cholesterol can be considered as a poor prognostic sign in CKD patients.[70]

Carcinoma

High density lipoprotein cholesterol has recently received much attention as a possible risk marker of prostate cancer development and prognosis.[71] In addition, preoperative low serum HDL cholesterol concentration or high TC/HDL cholesterol ratio might be a potential biomarker of advanced pN(2-3) stages in gastric cancer patients, especially those with the histologically differentiated type.[72] Preoperative serum HDL-cholesterol levels retrospectively examined in 184 patients who had undergone gastrectomy revealed a positive correlation between low preoperative serum HDL-cholesterol levels and prognosis for gastric cancer.[73] A major function attributed to HDL is to maintain normal cell cholesterol homeostasis by removing excess of cholesterol from intracellular pools. Because the use and storage of cholesterol are increased within the tumor tissues during growth, it can be hypothesized that the low HDL levels observed in patients with gastrointestinal cancer are associated with the increased cholesterol metabolism in proliferating tissues.[74]

Cirrhosis

A Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score ≥18 and TC ≤2.8 mmol/L are two important indexes to predict the prognosis of patients with decompensated cirrhosis. The serum triglycerides, total cholesterol, HDL and LDL levels were lowered with the increase of the MELD score. Their combination can effectively predict the long-term prognosis of patients with decompensated cirrhosis.[75] In an Asian study, an inverse correlation of serum levels of HDL and APO A-I with the liver reserve and disease severity in cirrhotic patients with severe sepsis was found. Low level of HDL and APO A-I were associated with a marked impairment of effective arterial volume, multiple organ dysfunction and a poor prognosis.[76] In another study, HDL cholesterol in noncholestatic cirrhotic patients was found to be a liver function test as well as an indicator of prognosis.[77]

Dementia

A study involving academic nursing home patients revealed that the prevalence of increased serum LDL cholesterol and decreased serum HDL cholesterol were found to be significantly higher in elderly patients with atherosclerotic vascular disease plus dementia (72%) and also in dementia without atherosclerotic vascular disease (68%) than in patients with no dementia or atherosclerotic vascular disease.[43] These results suggest a possible prognostic role of HDL levels in dementia with or without atherosclerotic vascular disease.

Kawasaki Disease

Children with Kawasaki disease are more likely to have low HDL than the general pediatric population. This finding suggests a possible association between low HDL levels and the vascular complications of Kawasaki disease.[78]

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

The negative association between HDL-cholesterol and liver-fat content is a known phenomenon. Thus the prognosis of NAFLD, which is one of the commonest causes of chronic liver disease both in US and worldwide, is worsened by low HDL levels.[79][80]

Sepsis

Low HDL level was found to be independently related to 30-day mortality in human sepsis and the decrease in apo-AI/HDL cholesterol correlated with increased platelet activation.[81] Another study found that serum levels of HDL and apo-AI are inversely correlated with liver reserve and disease severity in cirrhotic patients with severe sepsis. Both were associated with a marked impairment of effective arterial volume, multiple organ dysfunction and a poor prognosis.[76] A low HDL cholesterol level on day one of severe sepsis has been shown to be significantly associated with an increase in mortality and adverse clinical outcomes.[82]

Acute Ischemic Stroke

Low HDL has been established as one of the risk factors for acute ischemic stroke. Patients with acute ischemic stroke were found to have a significantly smaller HDL size, with more HDL3a, HDL3b and HDL3c and less HDL2b subclasses. Large artery atherosclerotic stroke and lacunar ischemic stroke had the strongest association with high total cholesterol levels and low HDL cholesterol levels in a case-control study.[83]

References

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  2. ↑ Rajagopal G, Suresh V, Sachan A (2012). "High-density lipoprotein cholesterol: How High". Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 16 (Suppl 2): S236–8. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.104048. PMC 3603035. PMID 23565387. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Wittrup, HH.; Tybjaerg-Hansen, A.; Nordestgaard, BG. (1999). "Lipoprotein lipase mutations, plasma lipids and lipoproteins, and risk of ischemic heart disease. A meta-analysis". Circulation. 99 (22): 2901–7. PMID 10359734. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Manninen, V.; Tenkanen, L.; Koskinen, P.; Huttunen, JK.; Mänttäri, M.; Heinonen, OP.; Frick, MH. (1992). "Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki Heart Study. Implications for treatment". Circulation. 85 (1): 37–45. PMID 1728471. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Burke, AP.; Farb, A.; Malcom, GT.; Liang, YH.; Smialek, J.; Virmani, R. (1997). "Coronary risk factors and plaque morphology in men with coronary disease who died suddenly". N Engl J Med. 336 (18): 1276–82. doi:10.1056/NEJM199705013361802. PMID 9113930. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  14. ↑ Huxley, RR.; Barzi, F.; Lam, TH.; Czernichow, S.; Fang, X.; Welborn, T.; Shaw, J.; Ueshima, H.; Zimmet, P. (2011). "Isolated low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol are associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease: an individual participant data meta-analysis of 23 studies in the Asia-Pacific region". Circulation. 124 (19): 2056–64. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.028373. PMID 21986289. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ↑ Lu, Q.; Tian, G.; Zhang, Y.; Lu, M.; Lin, X.; Ma, A. (2013). "Low HDL-C predicts risk and PCI outcomes in the Han Chinese population". Atherosclerosis. 226 (1): 193–7. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.09.011. PMID 23107044. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  21. ↑ Haase, CL.; Tybjærg-Hansen, A.; Qayyum, AA.; Schou, J.; Nordestgaard, BG.; Frikke-Schmidt, R. (2012). "LCAT, HDL cholesterol and ischemic cardiovascular disease: a Mendelian randomization study of HDL cholesterol in 54,500 individuals". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 97 (2): E248–56. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1846. PMID 22090275. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ Ridker, PM.; Genest, J.; Boekholdt, SM.; Libby, P.; Gotto, AM.; Nordestgaard, BG.; Mora, S.; MacFadyen, JG.; Glynn, RJ. (2010). "HDL cholesterol and residual risk of first cardiovascular events after treatment with potent statin therapy: an analysis from the JUPITER trial". Lancet. 376 (9738): 333–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60713-1. PMID 20655105. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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  26. ↑ Niesor, EJ.; Magg, C.; Ogawa, N.; Okamoto, H.; von der Mark, E.; Matile, H.; Schmid, G.; Clerc, RG.; Chaput, E. (2010). "Modulating cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity maintains efficient pre-β-HDL formation and increases reverse cholesterol transport". J Lipid Res. 51 (12): 3443–54. doi:10.1194/jlr.M008706. PMID 20861162. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Wolfe, ML.; Rader, DJ. (2004). "Cholesteryl ester transfer protein and coronary artery disease: an observation with therapeutic implications". Circulation. 110 (11): 1338–40. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000143047.52724.BB. PMID 15364817. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ Barzilai, N.; Atzmon, G.; Schechter, C.; Schaefer, EJ.; Cupples, AL.; Lipton, R.; Cheng, S.; Shuldiner, AR. (2003). "Unique lipoprotein phenotype and genotype associated with exceptional longevity". JAMA. 290 (15): 2030–40. doi:10.1001/jama.290.15.2030. PMID 14559957. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ McGill, HC.; McMahan, CA.; Zieske, AW.; Sloop, GD.; Walcott, JV.; Troxclair, DA.; Malcom, GT.; Tracy, RE.; Oalmann, MC. (2000). "Associations of coronary heart disease risk factors with the intermediate lesion of atherosclerosis in youth. The Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 20 (8): 1998–2004. PMID 10938023. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ Hedman, M.; Pahlman, R.; Sundvall, J.; Ehnholm, C.; Syvänne, M.; Jokinen, E.; Jauhiainen, M.; Holmberg, C.; Antikainen, M. (2007). "Low HDL-C predicts the onset of transplant vasculopathy in pediatric cardiac recipients on pravastatin therapy". Pediatr Transplant. 11 (5): 481–90. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3046.2007.00690.x. PMID 17631015. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Genest, JJ.; Martin-Munley, SS.; McNamara, JR.; Ordovas, JM.; Jenner, J.; Myers, RH.; Silberman, SR.; Wilson, PW.; Salem, DN. (1992). "Familial lipoprotein disorders in patients with premature coronary artery disease". Circulation. 85 (6): 2025–33. PMID 1534286. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  32. ↑ Buring, JE.; O'Connor, GT.; Goldhaber, SZ.; Rosner, B.; Herbert, PN.; Blum, CB.; Breslow, JL.; Hennekens, CH. (1992). "Decreased HDL2 and HDL3 cholesterol, Apo A-I and Apo A-II, and increased risk of myocardial infarction". Circulation. 85 (1): 22–9. PMID 1728453. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. ↑ Kwiterovich, PO.; Coresh, J.; Bachorik, PS. (1993). "Prevalence of hyperapobetalipoproteinemia and other lipoprotein phenotypes in men (aged or = 50 years) and women ( or = 60 years) with coronary artery disease". Am J Cardiol. 71 (8): 631–9. PMID 8447257. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ Genest, J.; Bard, JM.; Fruchart, JC.; Ordovas, JM.; Schaefer, EJ. (1993). "Familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia in premature coronary artery disease". Arterioscler Thromb. 13 (12): 1728–37. PMID 8241092. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ "Lipids and lipoproteins in symptomatic coronary heart disease. Distribution, intercorrelations, and significance for risk classification in 6,700 men and 1,500 women. The Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention (BIP) Study Group, Israel". Circulation. 86 (3): 839–48. 1992. PMID 1516196. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ↑ Sacks, FM.; Tonkin, AM.; Craven, T.; Pfeffer, MA.; Shepherd, J.; Keech, A.; Furberg, CD.; Braunwald, E. (2002). "Coronary heart disease in patients with low LDL-cholesterol: benefit of pravastatin in diabetics and enhanced role for HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides as risk factors". Circulation. 105 (12): 1424–8. PMID 11914249. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ Barter, P.; Gotto, AM.; LaRosa, JC.; Maroni, J.; Szarek, M.; Grundy, SM.; Kastelein, JJ.; Bittner, V.; Fruchart, JC. (2007). "HDL cholesterol, very low levels of LDL cholesterol, and cardiovascular events". N Engl J Med. 357 (13): 1301–10. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064278. PMID 17898099. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Wolfram, RM.; Brewer, HB.; Xue, Z.; Satler, LF.; Pichard, AD.; Kent, KM.; Waksman, R. (2006). "Impact of low high-density lipoproteins on in-hospital events and one-year clinical outcomes in patients with non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction acute coronary syndrome treated with drug-eluting stent implantation". Am J Cardiol. 98 (6): 711–7. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.006. PMID 16950168. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Rader, DJ.; Ikewaki, K.; Duverger, N.; Feuerstein, I.; Zech, L.; Connor, W.; Brewer, HB. (1993). "Very low high-density lipoproteins without coronary atherosclerosis". Lancet. 342 (8885): 1455–8. PMID 7902482. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ↑ Klein, HG.; Lohse, P.; Pritchard, PH.; Bojanovski, D.; Schmidt, H.; Brewer, HB. (1992). "Two different allelic mutations in the lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase gene associated with the fish eye syndrome. Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (Thr123----Ile) and lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (Thr347----Met)". J Clin Invest. 89 (2): 499–506. doi:10.1172/JCI115612. PMID 1737840. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Sirtori, CR.; Calabresi, L.; Franceschini, G.; Baldassarre, D.; Amato, M.; Johansson, J.; Salvetti, M.; Monteduro, C.; Zulli, R. (2001). "Cardiovascular status of carriers of the apolipoprotein A-I(Milano) mutant: the Limone sul Garda study". Circulation. 103 (15): 1949–54. PMID 11306522. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ Windler, E.; Schöffauer, M.; Zyriax, BC. (2007). "The significance of low HDL-cholesterol levels in an ageing society at increased risk for cardiovascular disease". Diab Vasc Dis Res. 4 (2): 136–42. doi:10.3132/dvdr.2007.032. PMID 17654448. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Suryadevara, V.; Storey, SG.; Aronow, WS.; Ahn, C. (2003). "Association of abnormal serum lipids in elderly persons with atherosclerotic vascular disease and dementia, atherosclerotic vascular disease without dementia, dementia without atherosclerotic vascular disease, and no dementia or atherosclerotic vascular disease". J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 58 (9): M859–61. PMID 14528045. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Castelli, WP.; Wilson, PW.; Levy, D.; Anderson, K. (1989). "Cardiovascular risk factors in the elderly". Am J Cardiol. 63 (16): 12H–19H. PMID 2523187. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  45. ↑ Frost, PH.; Davis, BR.; Burlando, AJ.; Curb, JD.; Guthrie, GP.; Isaacsohn, JL.; Wassertheil-Smoller, S.; Wilson, AC.; Stamler, J. (1996). "Serum lipids and incidence of coronary heart disease. Findings from the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP)". Circulation. 94 (10): 2381–8. PMID 8921777. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  46. ↑ Corti, MC.; Guralnik, JM.; Salive, ME.; Harris, T.; Field, TS.; Wallace, RB.; Berkman, LF.; Seeman, TE.; Glynn, RJ. (1995). "HDL cholesterol predicts coronary heart disease mortality in older persons". JAMA. 274 (7): 539–44. PMID 7629981. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Ridker, PM.; Buring, JE.; Rifai, N.; Cook, NR. (2007). "Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds Risk Score". JAMA. 297 (6): 611–9. doi:10.1001/jama.297.6.611. PMID 17299196. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ Olson, MB.; Kelsey, SF.; Bittner, V.; Reis, SE.; Reichek, N.; Handberg, EM.; Merz, CN. (2000). "Weight cycling and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in women: evidence of an adverse effect: a report from the NHLBI-sponsored WISE study. Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation Study Group". J Am Coll Cardiol. 36 (5): 1565–71. PMID 11079659. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  49. ↑ Lamon-Fava, S.; Herrington, DM.; Reboussin, DM.; Sherman, M.; Horvath, KV.; Cupples, LA.; White, C.; Demissie, S.; Schaefer, EJ. (2008). "Plasma levels of HDL subpopulations and remnant lipoproteins predict the extent of angiographically-defined coronary artery disease in postmenopausal women". Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 28 (3): 575–9. doi:10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.157123. PMID 18174456. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  50. ↑ Conway, GS.; Agrawal, R.; Betteridge, DJ.; Jacobs, HS. (1992). "Risk factors for coronary artery disease in lean and obese women with the polycystic ovary syndrome". Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 37 (2): 119–25. PMID 1395062. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  51. ↑ Birdsall, MA.; Farquhar, CM.; White, HD. (1997). "Association between polycystic ovaries and extent of coronary artery disease in women having cardiac catheterization". Ann Intern Med. 126 (1): 32–5. PMID 8992921. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  52. ↑ Talbott, EO.; Zborowski, JV.; Rager, JR.; Boudreaux, MY.; Edmundowicz, DA.; Guzick, DS. (2004). "Evidence for an association between metabolic cardiovascular syndrome and coronary and aortic calcification among women with polycystic ovary syndrome". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 89 (11): 5454–61. doi:10.1210/jc.2003-032237. PMID 15531497. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  53. ↑ Asztalos, BF.; Schaefer, EJ.; Horvath, KV.; Cox, CE.; Skinner, S.; Gerrior, J.; Gorbach, SL.; Wanke, C. (2006). "Protease inhibitor-based HAART, HDL, and CHD-risk in HIV-infected patients". Atherosclerosis. 184 (1): 72–7. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2005.04.013. PMID 15935358. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  54. ↑ Bengtsson, BA.; Abs, R.; Bennmarker, H.; Monson, JP.; Feldt-Rasmussen, U.; Hernberg-Stahl, E.; Westberg, B.; Wilton, P.; Wüster, C. (1999). "The effects of treatment and the individual responsiveness to growth hormone (GH) replacement therapy in 665 GH-deficient adults. KIMS Study Group and the KIMS International Board". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 84 (11): 3929–35. PMID 10566630. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  55. ↑ Tomlinson, JW.; Holden, N.; Hills, RK.; Wheatley, K.; Clayton, RN.; Bates, AS.; Sheppard, MC.; Stewart, PM. (2001). "Association between premature mortality and hypopituitarism. West Midlands Prospective Hypopituitary Study Group". Lancet. 357 (9254): 425–31. PMID 11273062. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  56. ↑ Lakatos, J.; Hárságyi, A. (1988). "Serum total, HDL, LDL cholesterol, and triglyceride levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis". Clin Biochem. 21 (2): 93–6. PMID 3390902. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ↑ Lazarevic, MB.; Vitic, J.; Mladenovic, V.; Myones, BL.; Skosey, JL.; Swedler, WI. (1992). "Dyslipoproteinemia in the course of active rheumatoid arthritis". Semin Arthritis Rheum. 22 (3): 172–8. PMID 1295090. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ↑ Alagona, P. (2009). "Beyond LDL cholesterol: the role of elevated triglycerides and low HDL cholesterol in residual CVD risk remaining after statin therapy". Am J Manag Care. 15 (3 Suppl): S65–73. PMID 19355805. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ↑ Rubin, EM.; Krauss, RM.; Spangler, EA.; Verstuyft, JG.; Clift, SM. (1991). "Inhibition of early atherogenesis in transgenic mice by human apolipoprotein AI". Nature. 353 (6341): 265–7. doi:10.1038/353265a0. PMID 1910153. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  60. ↑ Duverger, N.; Kruth, H.; Emmanuel, F.; Caillaud, JM.; Viglietta, C.; Castro, G.; Tailleux, A.; Fievet, C.; Fruchart, JC. (1996). "Inhibition of atherosclerosis development in cholesterol-fed human apolipoprotein A-I-transgenic rabbits". Circulation. 94 (4): 713–7. PMID 8772693. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  61. ↑ Benoit, P.; Emmanuel, F.; Caillaud, JM.; Bassinet, L.; Castro, G.; Gallix, P.; Fruchart, JC.; Branellec, D.; Denèfle, P. "Somatic gene transfer of human ApoA-I inhibits atherosclerosis progression in mouse models". Circulation. 99 (1): 105–10. PMID 9884386.
  62. ↑ Navab, M.; Anantharamaiah, GM.; Hama, S.; Garber, DW.; Chaddha, M.; Hough, G.; Lallone, R.; Fogelman, AM. (2002). "Oral administration of an Apo A-I mimetic Peptide synthesized from D-amino acids dramatically reduces atherosclerosis in mice independent of plasma cholesterol". Circulation. 105 (3): 290–2. PMID 11804981. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  63. ↑ Ameli, S.; Hultgardh-Nilsson, A.; Cercek, B.; Shah, PK.; Forrester, JS.; Ageland, H.; Nilsson, J. (1994). "Recombinant apolipoprotein A-I Milano reduces intimal thickening after balloon injury in hypercholesterolemic rabbits". Circulation. 90 (4): 1935–41. PMID 7923682. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  64. ↑ Tangirala, RK.; Tsukamoto, K.; Chun, SH.; Usher, D.; Puré, E.; Rader, DJ. (1999). "Regression of atherosclerosis induced by liver-directed gene transfer of apolipoprotein A-I in mice". Circulation. 100 (17): 1816–22. PMID 10534470. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  65. ↑ Grundy, SM.; Cleeman, JI.; Daniels, SR.; Donato, KA.; Eckel, RH.; Franklin, BA.; Gordon, DJ.; Krauss, RM.; Savage, PJ. (2005). "Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement". Circulation. 112 (17): 2735–52. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.169404. PMID 16157765. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  66. ↑ Mehra, MR.; Uber, PA.; Lavie, CJ.; Milani, RV.; Park, MH.; Ventura, HO. (2009). "High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and prognosis in advanced heart failure". J Heart Lung Transplant. 28 (9): 876–80. doi:10.1016/j.healun.2009.04.026. PMID 19716038. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  67. ↑ Foody, JM.; Ferdinand, FD.; Pearce, GL.; Lytle, BW.; Cosgrove, DM.; Sprecher, DL. (2000). "HDL cholesterol level predicts survival in men after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: 20-year experience from The Cleveland Clinic Foundation". Circulation. 102 (19 Suppl 3): III90–4. PMID 11082369. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  68. ↑ Niessner, A.; Hofmann, R.; Kypta, A.; Steinwender, C.; Kerschner, K.; Kammler, J.; Leisch, F.; Huber, K. (2007). "Low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol predicts cardiovascular events after carotid stenting: a long-term survey". J Thromb Haemost. 5 (5): 950–4. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02451.x. PMID 17367491. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  69. ↑ Chen, L.; Théroux, P.; Lespérance, J.; Shabani, F.; Thibault, B.; De Guise, P. (1996). "Angiographic features of vein grafts versus ungrafted coronary arteries in patients with unstable angina and previous bypass surgery". J Am Coll Cardiol. 28 (6): 1493–9. PMID 8917263. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  70. ↑ Baragetti, A.; Norata, GD.; Sarcina, C.; Rastelli, F.; Grigore, L.; Garlaschelli, K.; Uboldi, P.; Baragetti, I.; Pozzi, C. (2013). "High density lipoprotein cholesterol levels are an independent predictor of the progression of chronic kidney disease". J Intern Med. 274 (3): 252–62. doi:10.1111/joim.12081. PMID 23607805. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  71. ↑ Kotani, K.; Sekine, Y.; Ishikawa, S.; Ikpot, IZ.; Suzuki, K.; Remaley, AT. (2013). "High-density lipoprotein and prostate cancer: an overview". J Epidemiol. 23 (5): 313–9. PMID 23985823. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  72. ↑ Guo, E.; Chen, L.; Xie, Q.; Chen, J.; Tang, Z.; Wu, Y. (2007). "Serum HDL-C as a potential biomarker for nodal stages in gastric cancer". Ann Surg Oncol. 14 (9): 2528–34. doi:10.1245/s10434-007-9401-0. PMID 17597347. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ Tamura, T.; Inagawa, S.; Hisakura, K.; Enomoto, T.; Ohkohchi, N. (2012). "Evaluation of serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels as a prognostic factor in gastric cancer patients". J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 27 (10): 1635–40. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2012.07189.x. PMID 22647147. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  74. ↑ Dessì, S.; Batetta, B.; Pulisci, D.; Spano, O.; Anchisi, C.; Tessitore, L.; Costelli, P.; Baccino, FM.; Aroasio, E. (1994). "Cholesterol content in tumor tissues is inversely associated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in serum in patients with gastrointestinal cancer". Cancer. 73 (2): 253–8. PMID 8293385. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  75. ↑ Jiang, M.; Liu, F.; Xiong, WJ.; Zhong, L.; Xu, W.; Xu, F.; Liu, YB. (2010). "Combined MELD and blood lipid level in evaluating the prognosis of decompensated cirrhosis". World J Gastroenterol. 16 (11): 1397–401. PMID 20238407. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Tsai, MH.; Peng, YS.; Chen, YC.; Lien, JM.; Tian, YC.; Fang, JT.; Weng, HH.; Chen, PC.; Yang, CW. (2009). "Low serum concentration of apolipoprotein A-I is an indicator of poor prognosis in cirrhotic patients with severe sepsis". J Hepatol. 50 (5): 906–15. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2008.12.024. PMID 19304335. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  77. ↑ Habib, A.; Mihas, AA.; Abou-Assi, SG.; Williams, LM.; Gavis, E.; Pandak, WM.; Heuman, DM. (2005). "High-density lipoprotein cholesterol as an indicator of liver function and prognosis in noncholestatic cirrhotics". Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 3 (3): 286–91. PMID 15765449. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  78. ↑ Newburger, JW.; Takahashi, M.; Gerber, MA.; Gewitz, MH.; Tani, LY.; Burns, JC.; Shulman, ST.; Bolger, AF.; Ferrieri, P. (2004). "Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term management of Kawasaki disease: a statement for health professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, American Heart Association". Pediatrics. 114 (6): 1708–33. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2182. PMID 15574639. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  79. ↑ Seppälä-Lindroos, A.; Vehkavaara, S.; Häkkinen, AM.; Goto, T.; Westerbacka, J.; Sovijärvi, A.; Halavaara, J.; Yki-Järvinen, H. (2002). "Fat accumulation in the liver is associated with defects in insulin suppression of glucose production and serum free fatty acids independent of obesity in normal men". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 87 (7): 3023–8. PMID 12107194. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  80. ↑ Adiels, M.; Taskinen, MR.; Packard, C.; Caslake, MJ.; Soro-Paavonen, A.; Westerbacka, J.; Vehkavaara, S.; Häkkinen, A.; Olofsson, SO. (2006). "Overproduction of large VLDL particles is driven by increased liver fat content in man". Diabetologia. 49 (4): 755–65. doi:10.1007/s00125-005-0125-z. PMID 16463046. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  81. ↑ Barlage, S.; Gnewuch, C.; Liebisch, G.; Wolf, Z.; Audebert, FX.; Glück, T.; Fröhlich, D.; Krämer, BK.; Rothe, G. (2009). "Changes in HDL-associated apolipoproteins relate to mortality in human sepsis and correlate to monocyte and platelet activation". Intensive Care Med. 35 (11): 1877–85. doi:10.1007/s00134-009-1609-y. PMID 19669126. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  82. ↑ Chien, JY.; Jerng, JS.; Yu, CJ.; Yang, PC. (2005). "Low serum level of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol is a poor prognostic factor for severe sepsis". Crit Care Med. 33 (8): 1688–93. PMID 16096442. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  83. ↑ Tirschwell, DL.; Smith, NL.; Heckbert, SR.; Lemaitre, RN.; Longstreth, WT.; Psaty, BM. (2004). "Association of cholesterol with stroke risk varies in stroke subtypes and patient subgroups". Neurology. 63 (10): 1868–75. PMID 15557504. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)


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