Pulmonary embolism diagnostic approach
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Editor(s)-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1], The APEX Trial Investigators; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Rim Halaby, M.D. [2]
Overview
When a patient presents with the cardinal symptoms of pulmonary embolism (PE), such as sudden onset of dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, tachypnea, and/or tachycardia, the initial step is to stratify the patient into high risk or non-high risk depending on their hemodynamic status. Patients who are suspected to have PE and who are hemodynamically unstable should be administered anticoagulation and should undergo a CT scan or echocardiography if CT scan is unavailable. Among patients who are hemodynamically stable, the pretest probability of PE should be estimated using one of the available scoring systems, the most used of which is the Wells score. Patients who have a low or intermediate pretest probability of PE should undergo D-dimer testing as the initial test, whereas those who have a high pretest probability of PE should undergo a CT scan without a D-dimer test. Patients at intermediate or high pretest probability of PE should be administered anticoagulation therapy before the completion of the diagnotic testing.
Diagnostic Algorithm
A focused initial rapid evaluation should be performed to identify patients suspected of having PE and in need of immediate intervention.[1][2][3]
Abbreviations: CT: Computed tomography; IV: Intravenous; IVC: Inferior vena cava; PE: Pulmonary embolism; PERC: PE Rule-Out Criteria; RV: Right ventricle; SC: Subcutaneous; VKA: Vitamin K antagonist
Identify cardinal findings that increase the pretest probability of PE:
❑ Dyspnea | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Does the patient who is suspected to have PE have hypotension or shock? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Yes | No | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Suspected high-risk PE | Suspected non-high risk PE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Administer anticoagulation (in case there are no contraindications) during the diagnostic workup | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Is a CT available immediately? | What is the pretest probability of PE? Assess the pretest probability of PE by using one of the risk score: - Wells score - Geneva score - PERC | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| No | Yes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Order echocardiography | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Does the patient have RV overload? | Low pretest probability | Intermediate pretest probability | High pretest probability OR PE is likely | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Administer anticoagulation (in case there are no contraindications) during the diagnostic workup | Administer anticoagulation (in case there are no contraindications) during the diagnostic workup | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| No | Yes | Order CT | Order D-dimer | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Is the patient unstable OR no other tests are available? | Is the patient stabilized AND CT is now available? | Order CT | PE is excluded | Order CT | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Positive | Negative | Positive | Negative | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| PE is excluded | Consider thrombolytic therapy or embolectomy | Order CT | PE is confirmed | PE is excluded | PE is confirmed | PE is excluded | PE is confirmed | PE is excluded | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Positive for PE | Negative for PE | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| PE is confirmed | PE is excluded | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
References
- ↑ Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, Agnelli G, Galiè N, Pruszczyk P; et al. (2008). "Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC)". Eur Heart J. 29 (18): 2276–315. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehn310. PMID 18757870.
- ↑ Jaff MR, McMurtry MS, Archer SL, Cushman M, Goldenberg N, Goldhaber SZ; et al. (2011). "Management of massive and submassive pulmonary embolism, iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Circulation. 123 (16): 1788–830. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e318214914f. PMID 21422387.
- ↑ Kearon C, Akl EA, Comerota AJ, Prandoni P, Bounameaux H, Goldhaber SZ; et al. (2012). "Antithrombotic therapy for VTE disease: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines". Chest. 141 (2 Suppl): e419S–94S. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2301. PMC 3278049. PMID 22315268.