Humeral shaft fracture
| Humeral shaft fracture | |
| ICD-10 | S42.2-S42.4 |
|---|---|
| ICD-9 | 812 |
| eMedicine | emerg/199 orthoped/271 orthoped/199 |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohammadmain Rezazadehsaatlou[2].
Overview[1][2][3]
The injuries of the ball-and-socket shoulder joint considered as the Humeral shaft fracture. It is more common among the elderly population following a low energy trauma such as falling. Meanwhile, A few people experience the axillary nerve damage such as reduced sensation around the middle deltoid and/or axillary artery involvement.
Historical Perspective
There are no reliable information regarding the historical perspective of the Humeral shaft fractur.
Causes[4][5]
The main etiology of the Humeral shaft fracture is thought to be an axial loading may be placed on a hyperpronated forearm during falling onto an outstretched hand (FOOSH) with an extended wrist and hyperpronated forearm and shoulder. Because at this posture the energy from the radius fracture transmitted towards the shoulder joint cause the fracture and/or dislocation of the humerus bone. As a person age, two factors cause higher risk of fractures:
- Weaker bones
- Greater risk of falling
Stress fractures as a common causes of fractures can be found due to the repeated stresses and strains. Importantly children having more physically active lifestyles than adults, are also prone to fractures. People with any underlying diseases such as osteoporosis, infection, or a tumor affecting their bones having a higher risk of fractures. As mentioned in previous chapters, this type of fracture is known as a pathological fracture. Stress fractures, which result from repeated stresses and strains, commonly found among professional sports people, are also common causes of fractures.
Life-threatening Causes
- There are no life-threatening causes of Humeral shaft fracture , however complications resulting from Humeral shaft fracture is common.
Common Causes
Common causes of Humeral shaft fracture may include:
- Trauma (Fall on an outstretched hand)
Less Common Causes
Less common causes of Humeral shaft fracture include conditions that predisposes to fracture:
Causes by Organ System
| Cardiovascular | No underlying causes |
| Chemical/Poisoning | No underlying causes |
| Dental | No underlying causes |
| Dermatologic | No underlying causes |
| Drug Side Effect | No underlying causes |
| Ear Nose Throat | No underlying causes |
| Endocrine | No underlying causes |
| Environmental | No underlying causes |
| Gastroenterologic | No underlying causes |
| Genetic | No underlying causes |
| Hematologic | No underlying causes |
| Iatrogenic | No underlying causes |
| Infectious Disease | No underlying causes |
| Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic | Osteoporosis and osteopenia. |
| Neurologic | No underlying causes |
| Nutritional/Metabolic | Osteoporosis and osteopenia. |
| Obstetric/Gynecologic | No underlying causes |
| Oncologic | No underlying causes |
| Ophthalmologic | No underlying causes |
| Overdose/Toxicity | No underlying causes |
| Psychiatric | No underlying causes |
| Pulmonary | No underlying causes |
| Renal/Electrolyte | No underlying causes |
| Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy | No underlying causes |
| Sexual | No underlying causes |
| Trauma | Falling of car accident to on side of Humerus bone. |
| Urologic | No underlying causes |
| Miscellaneous | No underlying causes |
Causes in Alphabetical Order
List the causes of the disease in alphabetical order:
Pathophysiology[6][7]
Mechanism
The Humeral shaft fracture is caused by a fall. The form and severity of this fracture depends on the position of the shoulder joint at the moment of hitting the ground. The width of this mentioned angle affects the localization of the fracture. Pronation, supination and abduction positions leads the direction of the force and the compression of carpus and different appearances of injury.
Pathophysiology
Its known that the Humeral shaft fracture in normal healthy adults can be caused due to the high-energy trauma (e.g., motor vehicle accidents), sport related injuries, falling from height. But it should be noted that the most important Risk factors for insufficiency fractures is chronic metabolic disease such as steoporosis, osteopenia, eating-disordered behavior, higher age, prolonged corticosteroid usage, female gender, lower BMI, history of a recent falling, and prior fracture.
The injury to the radial nerve is the most important Comorbidity in most cases with Humeral shaft fracture which occurs in around 20% of closed mid-shaft or distal Humeral shaft fracture and 60% of the humerus fractures.
- The pattern of bone fracture and severity of injury depends on variety of factors such as:
- Patients age
- Patients Weight
- Patients past medical history specifically any bone diseases affecting the quality of bone (such as osteoporosis, malignancies)
- Energy of trauma
- Bone quality
- Position of the specific organ during the trauma
- The below-mentioned processes cause decreased bone mass density:
- Autophagy is the mechanism through which osteocytes evade oxidative stress.
- The capability of autophagy in cells decreases as they age, a major factor of aging.
- As osteocytes grow, viability of cells decrease thereby decreasing the bone mass density.
Differentiating Humeral shaft fracture from other Diseases[5][8]
In the orthopedic medicine its important to know that the forearm fracture should be evaluated using radiography for both confirming diagnosis and also for evaluating the surrounding tissues. Other injuries such as possible shoulder fracture-dislocation; radial head or coronoid fractures or lateral collateral ligament injury. If the mechanism of injury suggests particularly low energy then the Osteoporosis should be considered. The pathological Fractures occurring in a bone with a tumor or Paget's disease) are rare but possible[3].
Also it should be noted that the both bone fractures can be complicated by acute compartment syndrome of the forearm. Signs suggesting compartment syndrome are pain on extension of digits, and marked edema[3].
As another important fact in orthopedic fracture is if both-bone fractures were found in pediatric which is common after accidental trauma, but it may also be the due to the of child abuse; and in these cases a careful attention and evaluation should be considered if a child abuse is suspected Differential Diagnoses for the Humeral shaft fracture:
- Shoulder Dislocation
- Elbow Fracture
- Clavicle Fracture
- Scapular Fracture
Epidemiology and Demographics[9][10]
The Humeral shaft fractures account for 3-5% of all human fractures. and it is consisted of 60% of all humeral fractures. Peak incidence in males and female are 20-30 age and 60-80, respectively. Comparing to epidemiological data of the Japan and European countries, the incidence rates of humerus fractures are higher in the United states population.
Risk Factors [11][12][10]
There are different risk factors that presidpose patient for the Humeral shaft fracture that include:
- High-risk contact sports
- Higher age (elderly adults are higher prone to such fractures)
- Reduced bone density (osteoporosis)
- Direct blow
- Road / traffic accidents
- Falling on an outstretched hand with the forearm pronated
- Direct trauma to the arm/forearm
- Taking part in any rough or high-impact sport
- Street fights, gunshot wounds, and domestic violence, may also cause the Humeral shafts fracture
- Road traffic accidents.
Classification [13]
The Humeral shaft fracture can be classified AS:
- Anatomical location: proximal, middle or distal third
- Fracture pattern: spiral, short oblique, transverse or comminuted
- Degree of displacement
- Presence of soft tissue damage (open or closed)
Meanwhile, the Müller AO Classification is a well known classifying system for the fractured bone published in 1987.
| Type | Group | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | |
| A - Simple fractures | Spiral | Oblique ≥30º | Transverse < 30º |
| B - Wedge fractures | Spiral wedge | Bending wedge | fragmentory wedge |
| C - Multifragmentary fractures | intact segmental | fragmentary segmental | |
Screening[5][14]
Osteoporosis is an important risk factor for human affecting human bone especially in men with the age of older than 50 years old and postmenopausal and women.
Based on the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) there are three groups of patients need to be screened for the osteoporosis:
- · Men with no history of osteoporosis
- · Women with the age of 65≤ year old, with no previous history of pathological fracture due to the osteoporosis
- · Women with the age of <65 years, with 10-year fracture risk of not less than a 65-year-old white woman (who has not any other risk factor)
Accordingly women older than age of 50 are the main target for the osteoporosis screening. There is no specific recommendation to screen men for the osteoporosis.
The USPSTF recommendations from 2002 included:
Meanwhile, there are two major modalities for the osteoporosis screening:
- · Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of the hip and lumbar spine bones
- · Quantitative ultrasonography of the calcaneus
*It should be noted of the two above mentioned modalities for screening the ultrasonograhy is preferred to the DXA due to its lower cost, lower ionizing radiation, more availability.
After the primary evaluation of the osteoporosis, the further evaluation are required in some cases such as:
· Women with normal bone density or mild osteopenia: T-score of greater than −1.50 – should have screening for 15 years.
· Women with moderate osteopenia: T-score of −1.50 to −1.99 – should have screening for 5 years.
· Women with advanced osteopenia: T-score of −2.00 to −2.49 - should have screening for 1 year.
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis [4][15][16]
Natural History
In cases with untreated Humeral shaft fracture the malunion and deformity of arm can be occurred.
Complications
The overall complication rate in the treatment of Humeral shafts fracture were found in around 40% of cases:
- Neurovascular compromise: such as Ulna nerve damage
- Compartment syndrome
- Chronic disability of the DRUJ
- Physeal Injury
- Malunion of the radius
- Nonunion
- Infection
- Refracture following plate removal
- Posterior interosseois nerve (PIN) injury.
- Instability of the DRUJ
- Radial nerve injury
- Brachial artery injuries
Prognosis [17]
Each treatment methods for the humeral shaft fracture is associated with a 90% of rate union. Successful treatment of Humeral shaftshaft depends on the on-time interventions such as: reduction of the radius and DRUJ and the restoration of the forearm axis. The incidence of nonunion of Humeral shafts fracture is very low. Previous researches showed that the loss of strength at the supination and pronation were found in 12.5% and 27.2%, respectively.
Diagnosis[18]
The diagnosis of a Humeral shaft fracture should be confirmed using a radiographic examination.
History and Symptoms[19][20]
The related signs and symptoms include:
- Deformity
- Skin lacerations
- Weak pulse
- Open fractures
- Bruising
- Swelling
- Stiffness
- Inability to move
- Pain in touch
- Loss of function of the forearm
- Difficulties in detection of pulses
- Radial nerve damage
In the physical exam the orthopedic surgeon should check the vascular status and amount of swelling in the forearm. In MULTI-trauma patients or in comatose or obtunded patients a tense compartment with neurological signs or stretch pain should be considered as the compartment syndrome, and the compartment pressures should be measured and monitored. Normally the pain and soft-tissue swelling are found at the injury site (distal-third radial fracture site and at the wrist joint). This injury should be confirmed using a radiographic evaluations. Also, patients may loss the pinch mechanism between their thumb and their index finger which can be due to the paralysis of the flexor pollicis longus (FPL) and flexor digitorum profundus (FDP).
Physical Examination[18][21][20]
The related signs and symptoms include:
- Edema
- Most of the time the edema will be a non-pitting edema
- Depends on the edema extent, it may even lead to compartment syndrome in the anterior and internal compartment of shoulder
- Bruising
- As a manifestation of internal injury to the local vessels by trauma or fractures bone
- Decrease in range of motion
- Movement of the fractures limb will be painful if possible at all
- Tenderness
- Deformity
- Fractured bone deformity may be touchable in the internal side of the forearm if the fracture is displaced
In the physical exam the orthopedic surgeon should check the vascular status and amount of swelling in the forearm. In polytrauma patients or in comatose or obtunded patients a tense compartment with neurological signs or stretch pain should be considered as the compartment syndrome, and the compartment pressures should be measured and monitored.
Physical examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture is usually remarkable for swelling, tenderness, bruises, ecchymosis, deformity and restricted range of motion of the wrist.
Appearance of the Patient
- Patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually appears normal unless the patients had a high energy trauma causing the open wound fracture.
Vital Signs
- Weak pulse may be seen when associated with polytrauma.
- Low blood pressure with normal pulse pressure may be present due to compound fracture with blood loss.
- Vascular imaging is rarely indicated.
Skin
- Skin examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture includes:
HEENT
- HEENT examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal.
Neck
- Neck examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture is usually normal
Lungs
- Pulmonary examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal
Heart
- Cardiovascular examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal
Abdomen
- Abdominal examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal
Back
- Back examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal
Genitourinary
- Genitourinary examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture usually normal
Neuromuscular
- Neuromuscular examination of patients with Humeral shaft fracture is usually normal
- However, some patients may develop neuropraxia of the branch of the Ulnar nerve resulting in decreased sensation of thumb, index and middle finger.
- electromyography (EMG) may be used in the subacute or long-term phase to assess the extent of the neural damage
Laboratory Findings [22]
There is a limited laboratory tests useful in the diagnosis of bone fractures such as the Humeral shaft fracture. Meanwhile, aged men and women may have some abnormalities in their laboratory findings suggestive of osteoporosis.
Laboratory tests for the diagnosis of osteoporosis are:
- Complete blood count (CBC)
- Serum total calcium level
- Serum Ionized calcium level
- Serum phosphate level
- Serum alkaline phosphatase level
- Serum 25-(OH)-vitamin D level
X Ray [2][4]
The orthopedic surgeon should consider to have at least two radiographic projections (ie, anteroposterior [AP] and lateral) of the forearm. These show the fracture, the extent of displacement, and the extent of comminution. The orthopedic surgeon should pay serious attention toward finding any foreign bodies in open fractures and gunshot injuries. Also imperative is to include the elbow and wrist joint in the radiographs of Humeral shafts fracture to ensure that the distal radioulnar joint injuries are not missed.
-
Transverse fracture through the proximal diaphysis of the left humerus, with complete displacement and slight overlap. Open growth plate noted.
-
Transverse fracture through the proximal diaphysis of the left humerus, with complete displacement and slight overlap. Open growth plate noted.
-
Humeral shaft fracture with displacement of fragments and a "butterfly fragment".
-
Humeral shaft fracture with displacement of fragments and a "butterfly fragment".
.jpg)
.jpg)
CT [23][24]
- CT-scan in the case of the Humeral shafts fractureis the best modality if you can not have an exclusive diagnosis by X-ray itself can not be made.
-
3D- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
-
Coronal bone window- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
-
Sagittal bone window- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
.jpg)
.jpg)
MRI [25]
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an expensive technique that should not be used routinely.
- MRI is a powerful diagnostic tool to assess the abnormalities of the bone, ligaments and soft tissues associated with the Humeral shaft fracture, but it is known as a limited utility in radioulnar injuries and is not indicated in uncomplicated forearm fractures.
- Meanwhile, the MRI can be useful in in following mentioned evaluations:
- Evaluation of occult fractures
- Evaluation of the post-traumatic or avascular necrosis of carpal bones
- Evaluation of tendons
- Evaluation of nerve
- Evaluation of carpal tunnel syndrome
Other Imaging Findings[26]
There are no other imaging findings associated with Humeral shafts fracture
Other Diagnostic Studies[26]
There are no other Diagnostic studies associated with Humeral shaft fracture
Treatment [17][27]
Immediate stabilization of patients is the first step. Then the radial fracture and the DRUJ stabilization is recommended in these cases. Open forearm fractures considered as a surgical emergency. Humeral shafts fracture occurs in younger patients who are skeletally immature; the normally they treated using a closed reduction and casting. Since closed reduction and cast application have led to unsatisfactory results. Then, Almost always the open reduction are necessary for the Humeral shafts fracture. There are controversies regarding the indications for intramedullary nailing of forearm fractures.
Non-Operative Treatment [28][27][8][29]
historically the main management of the humeral shaft_fracture conservative using the reduction (with an adequate pain control and/or sedation) and splint. The reduction should be considered urgently specially in cases with a loss of pulse distal to the injury or skin tenting. Using any types of splints, the joint above and below the humerus bone (elbow and shoulder) should be completely immobilized.
- The first step in managing a patient with a fracture is to stabilize the patient if he/she is unstable due to blood loss, etc by giving them intravenous fluids and giving them some painkillers if the pain is severe.
- In children, the usual plan is to attempt closed reduction followed by cast immobilization. In adults, treatment with immobilization in a molded long arm cast can be used in those rare occasions of a non-displaced fracture of both bones of the forearm. If the fracture shifts in position, it may require surgery to put the bones back together.
- Rigid immobilization is suggested in preference to removable splints in nonoperative treatment for the management of the Humeral shafts fracture
- For all patients with Humeral shafts fracture, a post-reduction true lateral radiograph is suggested .
- Operative fixation is suggested in preference to cast fixation for fractures with post-reduction radial shortening greater than 3 mm, dorsal tilt greater than 10º, or intra-articular displacement or step-off greater than 2 mm.
- Patients probably do not need to begin early wrist motion routinely after stable fracture fixation.
- Adjuvant treatment of Humeral shafts fracture with vitamin C is suggested for the prevention of disproportionate pain
Complications of Non-surgical therapy
Failure of non-surgical therapy is common:
- Re-displacement to its original position even in a cast
- Stiffness
- Post traumatic osteoarthritis leading to wrist pain and loss of function
- Other risks specific to cast treatment include:
- Compression of the swollen arm causing compartment syndrome
- Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a serious complication
- Stiffness is universal following a prolonged period of immobilization and swelling
Surgery [30][31][32][4][33]
- Some indications for surgical interventions include:
- neurovascular injury
- open fractures
- comminuted fractures
- inability to tolerate a splint/cast for a prolonged time
- trauma with multiple fractures
- other fractures to the same arm
- failed conservative treatment with nonunion fracture
- Returning to the normal physical activity after Humeral shafts fracturecan take weeks to months of therapy under supervision an orthopedist. Meanwhile, a physiotherapy can be helpful for patient to achieve the normal wrist and elbow function caused by the immobilisation. All adult Humeral shafts fracture should be considered to be treated with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF).
-
Treated with open reduction and pinning.
-
Treated with open reduction and pinning.
-
3D- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
-
Coronal bone window- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
-
Sagittal bone window- Fracture of the middle third of the humerus, with small shifting and no signs of consolidation.
-
Humerus fracture after osteosynthesis
.jpg)
Operation
- There are a variety of methods and implants useful to stabilize the Humeral shafts fracture, ranging from closed reduction and percutaneous pin fixation to the use of intra-medullary devices.
- However, the most common fixation methods to treat complex Humeral shafts fracture include external fixation, and open reduction and internal fixation.
External Fixation With or Without Percutaneous Pin Fixation
- Wrist spanning external fixation employs ligamentotaxis to restore and maintain length, alignment, and rotation of ulnar bone.
- Reduction is typically obtained through closed or minimally open methods and preserves the fracture biology.
- The addition of percutaneous pins enhances the ability to reduce and stabilize fracture fragments.
Complications of External Fixation
- Pin tract infection
- Injury to the superficial branch of the nerve
- Complex regional pain syndrome
Open reduction and internal fixation with plates and screws
- This is the most common type of surgical repair for Humeral shafts fracture
- During this type of procedure, the bone fragments are first repositioned (reduced) into their normal alignment.
- The bones held together with special screws and metal plates attached to the outer surface of the bone.
Complications of open reduction and internal fixation with plates and screws =
- Infection
- Damage to nerves and blood vessels
- Synostosis
- Nonunion
Pain Management [11]
Pain after an injury or surgery is a natural part of the healing process.
Medications are often prescribed for short-term pain relief after surgery or an injurysuch as:
- opioids
- non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
- local anesthetics
Be aware that although opioids help relieve pain after surgery or an injury, they are a narcotic and can be addictive. It is important to use opioids only as directed by doctor.
Interventions [34][35]
The following options can be helpful for patients to rehabilitate after their fracture :
- Joints mobilization
- compression bandage
- Soft tissue massage
- Exercises and Activity modification
- Forearm taping
- Forearm bracing
Postoperative Rehabilitation[36]
- Complex Humeral shafts fracture warrant individualized immobilization and rehabilitation strategies.
- Similarly, the addition of a thumb spica cast or orthosis with positioning of the wrist in slight ulnar deviation for management of a comminuted radial column fracture may prevent loss of reduction. *Because most multifragmentary Humeral shafts fracture are the result of high-energy injuries, a prolonged period of wrist immobilization and soft-tissue rest may be beneficial and has not been shown to affect clinical outcomes.
- The wrist is typically immobilized for 2 weeks post-operatively in a sugar tong splint with neutral forearm rotation.
- At 6 weeks post-operatively, the wrist is placed into a removable orthosis, and active and passive range of motion (ROM) is initiated.
- Full weight bearing commences at approximately 3 months post-operatively after consolidation of the fracture is noted on radiographs.
- The presence of varying degrees of hand, wrist, and elbow stiffness is inevitable and may result from poor pain control, lack of effort in controlled mobilization, edema, concomitant ipsilateral upper extremity fractures, or peripheral nerve injuries.
- Early stretching and mobilization of the intrinsic and extrinsic tendons of the hand is important to prevent finger stiffness.
- Edema control can be initiated with compression gloves, digital massage, and active and passive ROM of the hand.
- A home exercise program or outpatient occupational therapy is started immediately post-operatively to maintain full range of motion of the hand and limit the development of intrinsic muscle tightness
Primary Prevention[14][37][38]
There are various preventive options to reduce the incidence of the Humeral shafts fracture
- Using forearm and wrist guards during practicing sports (skating, biking)
- Using forearm and wrist guards during driving motorbikes
- Avoid falls in elderly individuals
- Prevention and/or treatment of osteoporosis
- Healthy diet
Secondary Prevention[39][37]
It should be noted that the Post-menopausal women specially older than the age of 65 are at the higher risk of osteoporosis consequently these type of patients at greater risk for the pathological fractures .
So the Calcium and vitamin D supplementation play important role in increasing the bone mineral density (BMD) consequently decrease the risk of fracture in these type of patients. Also, avoiding excessive alcohol and quitting smoking play important role in this regard.
Detecting osteoporosis[37]
- DEXA(dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry) scan
- Serum calcium and vitamin D levels
- Ultrasonography of the calcaneus
Pharmacological therapy [19][40]
- The primary goal for the treatment of osteoporosis is to reduce longtime fracture risk in patients. Increasing bone mineral density (BMD) in response to the treatment is far less important than improvement of clinical aspects of osteoporosis, i.e., osteoporoticfracture. Therefore, most of the drugs efficacy is measured by the extent they improve the fracture risk instead of increasing BMD.
- During the treatment, if a single fracture happens, it does not necessarily indicate treatment failure or the need to be started on an alternative treatment or patient referral to a specialist.
- Calcium and vitamin D supplementation have been found to be effective in reducing the long term fracture risk, significantly. In order to suggest the people to use vitamin D and calcium supplements, the physician needs to make sure that patient is not able to obtain the nutrients through the daily intake. The available supplemental ions of calcium include calcium carbonate, calcium citrate, and vitamin D3 in various dosage forms.
Life style modifications[40]
- Exercise: Exercise promotes the mineralization of bone and bone accumulation particularly during growth. High impact exercise, in particular, has been shown to prevent the development of osteoporosis. However, it can have a negative effect on bone mineralization in cases of poor nutrition, such as anorexia nervosa and celiac disease.
- Nutrition: A diet high in calcium and vitamin D prevents bone loss. Patients at risk for osteoporosis, such as persons with chronic steroid use are generally treated with vitamin D and calcium supplementation. In renal disease, more active forms of vitamin D, such as 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol or calcitriol are used; as the kidney cannot adequately generate calcitriol from calcidiol (25-hydroxycholecalciferol), which is the storage form of vitamin D.
- By quitting smoking, osteoporosis as well as other diseases can be prevented.
- Avoiding excessive alcohol intake or drinking only in moderation.
Template:Fractures Template:WH Template:WS
See also
- Müller AO Classification of the Humeral shaft fracture
- Proximal humerus fracture
- Distal humerus fracture
- Humerus fracture
References
- ↑ Harkin FE, Large RJ (November 2017). "Humeral shaft fractures: union outcomes in a large cohort". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 26 (11): 1881–1888. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2017.07.001. PMID 29054684.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Schoch BS, Padegimas EM, Maltenfort M, Krieg J, Namdari S (September 2017). "Humeral shaft fractures: national trends in management". J Orthop Traumatol. 18 (3): 259–263. doi:10.1007/s10195-017-0459-6. PMC 5585093. PMID 28484909.
- ↑ Schwab TR, Stillhard PF, Schibli S, Furrer M, Sommer C (April 2018). "Radial nerve palsy in humeral shaft fractures with internal fixation: analysis of management and outcome". Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 44 (2): 235–243. doi:10.1007/s00068-017-0775-9. PMC 5884898. PMID 28280873.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Pidhorz L (February 2015). "Acute and chronic humeral shaft fractures in adults". Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 101 (1 Suppl): S41–9. doi:10.1016/j.otsr.2014.07.034. PMID 25604002.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Updegrove GF, Mourad W, Abboud JA (April 2018). "Humeral shaft fractures". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 27 (4): e87–e97. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2017.10.028. PMID 29292035.
- ↑ Carroll EA, Schweppe M, Langfitt M, Miller AN, Halvorson JJ (July 2012). "Management of humeral shaft fractures". J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 20 (7): 423–33. doi:10.5435/JAAOS-20-07-423. PMID 22751161.
- ↑ Ichimura K, Kinose S, Kawasaki Y, Okamura T, Kato K, Sakai T (October 2017). "Anatomic characterization of the humeral nutrient artery: Application to fracture and surgery of the humerus". Clin Anat. 30 (7): 978–987. doi:10.1002/ca.22976. PMID 28795436.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Driesman AS, Fisher N, Karia R, Konda S, Egol KA (December 2017). "Fracture Site Mobility at 6 Weeks After Humeral Shaft Fracture Predicts Nonunion Without Surgery". J Orthop Trauma. 31 (12): 657–662. doi:10.1097/BOT.0000000000000960. PMID 28708781.
- ↑ Devers BN, Lebus GF, Mir HR (November 2015). "Incidence and functional outcomes of malunion of nonoperatively treated humeral shaft fractures". Am J. Orthop. 44 (11): E434–7. PMID 26566558.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bergdahl C, Ekholm C, Wennergren D, Nilsson F, Möller M (April 2016). "Epidemiology and patho-anatomical pattern of 2,011 humeral fractures: data from the Swedish Fracture Register". BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 17: 159. doi:10.1186/s12891-016-1009-8. PMC 4830043. PMID 27072511.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Holloway KL, Bucki-Smith G, Morse AG, Brennan-Olsen SL, Kotowicz MA, Moloney DJ, Sanders KM, Korn S, Timney EN, Dobbins AG, Pasco JA (November 2015). "Humeral Fractures in South-Eastern Australia: Epidemiology and Risk Factors". Calcif. Tissue Int. 97 (5): 453–65. doi:10.1007/s00223-015-0039-9. PMID 26169198.
- ↑ Court-Brown CM, McQueen MM (May 2016). "Global Forum: Fractures in the Elderly". J Bone Joint Surg Am. 98 (9): e36. doi:10.2106/JBJS.15.00793. PMID 27147693.
- ↑ Resch H, Tauber M, Neviaser RJ, Neviaser AS, Majed A, Halsey T, Hirzinger C, Al-Yassari G, Zyto K, Moroder P (March 2016). "Classification of proximal humeral fractures based on a pathomorphologic analysis". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 25 (3): 455–62. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2015.08.006. PMID 26475635.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Lee SH, Han SS, Yoo BM, Kim JW (March 2019). "Outcomes of locking plate fixation with fibular allograft augmentation for proximal humeral fractures in osteoporotic patients: comparison with locking plate fixation alone". Bone Joint J. 101-B (3): 260–265. doi:10.1302/0301-620X.101B3.BJJ-2018-0802.R1. PMID 30813788.
- ↑ Yörükoğlu AÇ, Demirkan AF, Büker N, Akman A, Ok N (2016). "Humeral shaft fractures and radial nerve palsy: early exploration findings". Eklem Hastalik Cerrahisi. 27 (1): 41–5. doi:10.5606/ehc.2016.08. PMID 26874634.
- ↑ Chang G, Ilyas AM (February 2018). "Radial Nerve Palsy After Humeral Shaft Fractures: The Case for Early Exploration and a New Classification to Guide Treatment and Prognosis". Hand Clin. 34 (1): 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.hcl.2017.09.011. PMID 29169591.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Zhang BS, Li WY, Liu XH, Wei J, He L, Wang MY (October 2017). "[Comparative results of non-operative and operative treatment of humeral shaft fractures]". Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao (in Chinese). 49 (5): 851–854. PMID 29045968.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Bumbasirević M, Lesić A, Bumbasirević V, Cobeljić G, Milosević I, Atkinson HD (April 2010). "The management of humeral shaft fractures with associated radial nerve palsy: a review of 117 cases". Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 130 (4): 519–22. doi:10.1007/s00402-009-0951-4. PMID 19669771.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Tang HC, Xiang M, Chen H, Hu XC, Yang GY (January 2016). "[Manipulative reduction and small splint fixation combined with micromovement exercise for treatment of humeral shaft fractures]". Zhongguo Gu Shang (in Chinese). 29 (1): 82–6. PMID 27019905.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Crespo AM, Konda SR, De Paolis A, Cardoso L, Egol KA (February 2016). "Posttraumatic Malalignment of the Humeral Shaft: Challenging the Existing Paradigm". J Orthop Trauma. 30 (2): e48–52. doi:10.1097/BOT.0000000000000472. PMID 26462039.
- ↑ Aytac SD, Schnetzke M, Hudel I, Studier-Fischer S, Grützner PA, Gühring T (December 2014). "[High bone consolidation rates after humeral head-preserving revision surgery in non-unions of the proximal humerus]". Z Orthop Unfall (in German). 152 (6): 596–602. doi:10.1055/s-0034-1383208. PMID 25531521.
- ↑ Chiu FY, Chen CM, Lin CF, Lo WH, Huang YL, Chen TH (December 1997). "Closed humeral shaft fractures: a prospective evaluation of surgical treatment". J Trauma. 43 (6): 947–51. PMID 9420110.
- ↑ Obruba P, Capek L, Henys P, Kopp L (October 2016). "Computed modeling of humeral mid-shaft fracture treated by bundle nailing". Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin. 19 (13): 1371–7. doi:10.1080/10255842.2016.1142535. PMID 26828368.
- ↑ Russo R, Guastafierro A, Pietroluongo LR (May 2018). "A morphovolumetric study of head malposition in proximal humeral fractures based on 3-dimensional computed tomography scans: the control volume theory". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 27 (5): 940–949. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2017.12.004. PMID 29415824.
- ↑ Matar HE, Iyengar KP, Toh EM (December 2013). "Humeral shaft hypertrophic non-union mimicking malignant lesion". BMJ Case Rep. 2013. doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-202671. PMC 3863085. PMID 24336589.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Kosmopoulos V, Nana AD (April 2014). "Dual plating of humeral shaft fractures: orthogonal plates biomechanically outperform side-by-side plates". Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 472 (4): 1310–7. doi:10.1007/s11999-013-3379-7. PMC 3940765. PMID 24218163.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Zhao Y, Wang J, Yao W, Cai Q, Wang Y, Yuan W, Gao S (November 2017). "Interventions for humeral shaft fractures: mixed treatment comparisons of clinical trials". Osteoporos Int. 28 (11): 3229–3237. doi:10.1007/s00198-017-4174-1. PMID 28780727.
- ↑ Shin YH, Lee YH, Choi HS, Kim MB, Pyo SH, Baek GH (November 2017). "A modified deltoid splitting approach with axillary nerve bundle mobilization for proximal humeral fracture fixation". Injury. 48 (11): 2569–2574. doi:10.1016/j.injury.2017.09.007. PMID 28916133.
- ↑ Ruch DS (April 2017). "An Excellent Study of Operative Versus Nonoperative Treatment of Humeral Shaft Fractures: Commentary on an article by Fabio Teruo Matsunaga, MD, PhD, et al.: "Minimally Invasive Osteosynthesis with a Bridge Plate Versus a Functional Brace for Humeral Shaft Fractures. A Randomized Controlled Trial"". J Bone Joint Surg Am. 99 (7): e36. doi:10.2106/JBJS.16.01609. PMID 28375900.
- ↑ Konda SR, Saleh H, Fisher N, Egol KA (August 2017). "Humeral Shaft Fracture: Intramedullary Nailing". J Orthop Trauma. 31 Suppl 3: S38. doi:10.1097/BOT.0000000000000898. PMID 28697085.
- ↑ Zarkadis NJ, Eisenstein ED, Kusnezov NA, Dunn JC, Blair JA (February 2018). "Open reduction-internal fixation versus intramedullary nailing for humeral shaft fractures: an expected value decision analysis". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 27 (2): 204–210. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2017.08.004. PMID 28986048.
- ↑ Rämö L, Taimela S, Lepola V, Malmivaara A, Lähdeoja T, Paavola M (July 2017). "Open reduction and internal fixation of humeral shaft fractures versus conservative treatment with a functional brace: a study protocol of a randomised controlled trial embedded in a cohort". BMJ Open. 7 (7): e014076. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-014076. PMC 5734401. PMID 28694341.
- ↑ Westrick E, Hamilton B, Toogood P, Henley B, Firoozabadi R (February 2017). "Humeral shaft fractures: results of operative and non-operative treatment". Int Orthop. 41 (2): 385–395. doi:10.1007/s00264-016-3210-7. PMID 27150488.
- ↑ Passaretti D, Candela V, Sessa P, Gumina S (December 2017). "Epidemiology of proximal humeral fractures: a detailed survey of 711 patients in a metropolitan area". J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 26 (12): 2117–2124. doi:10.1016/j.jse.2017.05.029. PMID 28735839.
- ↑ Schmittenbecher PP (May 2017). "[Fractures of the upper limbs in childhood and adolescence]". Chirurg (in German). 88 (5): 451–466. doi:10.1007/s00104-017-0420-5. PMID 28409214.
- ↑ Yavropoulou MP, Giusti A, Ramautar SR, Dijkstra S, Hamdy NA, Papapoulos SE (June 2012). "Low-energy fractures of the humeral shaft and bisphosphonate use". J. Bone Miner. Res. 27 (6): 1425–31. doi:10.1002/jbmr.1593. PMID 22407939.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Li X, Li FL, Lu Y, Zhu YM, Guo SY, Li YJ, Jiang CY (October 2017). "[Clinical study on locking plate for the treatment of non-osteoporotic complex proximal humeral fractures]". Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao (in Chinese). 49 (5): 855–860. PMID 29045969.
- ↑ Carbone S, Razzano C, Albino P, Mezzoprete R (December 2017). "Immediate intensive mobilization compared with immediate conventional mobilization for the impacted osteoporotic conservatively treated proximal humeral fracture: a randomized controlled trial". Musculoskelet Surg. 101 (Suppl 2): 137–143. doi:10.1007/s12306-017-0483-y. PMID 28770512.
- ↑ Hak DJ, Althausen P, Hazelwood SJ (April 2010). "Locked plate fixation of osteoporotic humeral shaft fractures: are two locking screws per segment enough?". J Orthop Trauma. 24 (4): 207–11. doi:10.1097/BOT.0b013e3181bdd1da. PMID 20335752.
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 Strohm PC, Kubosch DC, Hübner EJ, Südkamp NP, Jaeger M, Reising K (October 2011). "[Therapy of humeral shaft fractures]". Chirurg (in German). 82 (10): 947–54, quiz 955. doi:10.1007/s00104-010-2055-7. PMID 21894541.