Ventricular tachycardia medical therapy

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor-In-Chief: Sara Zand, M.D.[2] Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [3], Avirup Guha, M.B.B.S.[4]

Overview

The mainstay of medical therapy in hemodynamic stable VT is suppression of tachyarrhythmia with antiarrhythmic medications such as amiodarone, sotalol, lidocaine, betablocker alongside with correction of hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia and hypocalcemia. In addition, treating the underlying causes of VT including ischemic heart disease or decompensated heart failure are warranted.

Medical Therapy

Common medications for treatment of VT include:[1]

Antiarrhythmic medications

[2]

Sodium channel blocker

Ranolazine

  • NO efficacy in reduction the fist VT, VF in high risk patients, but significant reduction of recurrent VT, VF requiring ICD implantation.[7]

Beta blocker

Amiodarone, sotalol

Calcium channel blocker



Arrhythmiac medication, class, dose Indication Receptor target Electrophysiologic effect Pharmacological characteristics Common advers effects
Acebutolol

PO 200–1200 mg daily, up to 600 mg bid

VT, PVC B1, mild internistic sympathetic activity Slowing sinus rate, increasing AV nodal refractoriness Prolonged haft life in renal impairment, metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, HF, AV block, Dizziness, fatigue, anxiety, impotence, hyperesthesia,hypoesthesia
Amiodarone (III)

IV:VF/pulseless VT arrest: 300 mg bolus, stable VT: 150-mg bolus then 1 mg/min x 6 h, then 0.5 mg/min x 18 h PO: 400 mg q 8 to 12 h for 1–2 wk, then 300–400 mg daily; reduce dose to 200 mg daily if possible

VT, VF, PVC INa, ICa, IKr, IK1, IKs, Ito, Beta receptor, Alpha receptor, nuclear T3

recepto

Slowed sinus rate, QRS prolongation, QTc prolongation, increased AV nodal refractoriness ,increased defibrilation threshold Metabolism: hepatic, half life: 26-107 days Hypotension, bradycardia, AV block, TdP, slowing VT below programmed ICD detection rate, increased defibrillation threshold, corneal microdeposits, thyroid abnormalities, ataxia, nausea, emesis, constipation, photosensitivity, skin discoloration, ataxia, dizziness, peripheral neuropathy, tremor, hepatitis, cirrhosis, pulmonary fibrosis, pneumonitis
Atenolol (II)

PO: 25–100 mg qd or bid

VT, PVC, ARVC, LQTS Beta 1 Slowed sinus rate , 
increased AV nodal refractoriness
Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, heart failure, AV block, dizziness, fatigue, depression, impotence
Bisoprolol (II)

PO: 2.5–10 mg once daily

VT, PVC Beta 1 receptor Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: hepatic Chest pain, bradycardia, AV block, Fatigue, insomnia, diarrhea
Carvedilol (II)

PO: 3.125–25 mg q 12 h

VT, PVC Beta 1, Beta 2, Alpha Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, edema, syncope, Hyperglycemia, dizziness, fatigue, diarrhea
Carvedilol (II)

PO: 3.125–25 mg q 12 h

VT, PVC Beta 1, Beta 2, Alpha Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, edema, syncope, Hyperglycemia, dizziness, fatigue, diarrhea
Diltiazem (IV)

IV: 5–10 mg,qd: 15–30 min, Extended release: PO: 120–360 mg/da, PO: 3.125–25 mg q 12 h

RVOT VT, ideopathic left VT ICa-L Slowed sinus rate, slowed AV node conduction, PR prolongation Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, edema, exacerbation of HF reduced EF, Headache, rash, constipation
Esmolol (II)

IV: 0.5 mg/kg bolus, 0.05 mg/kg/min

VT B1 Slowed sinus rate, increased AV node refractoriness Metabolism: RBC Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, HF, dizziness, neusea
Flecainide (IC) PO: 50–200 mg q 12 h VT, PVC (in the absence of structural heart disease), CPVT INa, IKr, IKur Prolonged PR interval, prolonged QRS duration, increased defibrillation threshold Metabolism: RBC Sinus node dysfunction, AV block, drug-induced Brugada syndrome, monomorphic VT in patients with a myocardial scar, exacerbation of HFrEF
Lidocaine (IB)

IV: 1 mg/kg bolus, 1–3 mg/min, 1–1.5 mg/kg. Repeat 0.5–0.75 mg/kg bolus every 5–10 min (max cumulative dose 3 mg/kg), maintenance infusion: 1–4 mg/min or starting 0.5 mg/min

VT, VF INa Slightly shortening of QTc interval Metabolism: hepatic, prolonged half life in HF, liver disease, shock, severe renal disease Bradycardia, hemodynamic collapse, AV block, sinus arrest, delirium, psychosis, seizure, nausea, tinnitus, dyspnea, bronchospasm
Metoprolol (II) IV: 5 mg q 5 min up to 3 doses, PO: 25–100 mg Extended release qd or q 12 h VT, PVC B1 Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: None, Excretion: urine Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, dizziness, fatigue, diarrhea, depression, dyspnea
Metoprolol (II) IV: 5 mg q 5 min up to 3 doses, PO: 25–100 mg Extended release qd or q 12 h VT, PVC B1 Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: None, Excretion: urine Bradycardia, hypotension, AV block, dizziness, fatigue, diarrhea, depression, dyspnea
Mexiletine (IB), PO: 150–300 mg q 8 h or q 12 h VT, PVC, VF, Long QT3 INa Slightly shortening of QTc interval Metabolism: hepatic HF, AV block, lightheaded, tremor, ataxia, paresthesias, nausea, blood dyscrasias
Nadolol (II)

PO: 40–320 mg daily

VT, PVC, LQTS, CPVT B1, B2 Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: none, excretion: urine Bradycardia, hypotension, HF, AV block, edema, dizziness, cold extremities, bronchospasm
Procainamide (IA), IV: loading dose 10–17 mg/kg at 20–50 mg/min, maintenance dose: 1–4 mg/min, PO (SR preparation): 500–1250 mg q 6 h VT, PVC, LQTS, CPVT B1, B2 Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: none, excretion: urine Bradycardia, hypotension, HF, AV block, edema, dizziness, cold extremities, bronchospasm
Propafenone (IC), PO: Immediate release 150–300 mg q 8 h, Extended release 225–425 mg q 12 h VT, PVC (in the absence of structural heart disease) INa, IKr, IKur, Beta receptor, Alpha recept Prolonged PR interval, prolonged QRS duration, increased defibrillation threshold Metabolism: hepatic HF, AV block, drug-induced Brugada syndrome, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, xerostomia, tremor, blurred vision
Propranolol (II), IV: 1–3 mg q 5 min to a total of 5 mg, PO: Immediate release 10–40 mg q 6 h; Extended release 60–160 mg q 12 h VT, PVC, Long QT syndrome Beta 1 , B2 , INa Slowed sinus rate, increased AV nodal refractoriness Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, HF, AV block, sleep disorder, dizziness, nightmares, hyperglycemia, diarrhea, bronchospasm
Quinidine (IA), PO: sulfate salt 200–600 mg q 6 h to q 12 h, gluconate salt 324–648 mg q 8 h to q 12 h, IV: loading dose: 800 mg in 50 mL infused at 50 mg/min VT, VF, short QT syndrome, brugada INa, Ito, IKr, M, Alpha receptor QRS prolongation, QTc prolongation, increased defibrillation threshold Metabolism: hepatic Syncope, torsades de pointes, AV block, dizziness, diarrhea, nausea, esophagitis, emesis, tinnitus, blurred vision, rash, weakness, tremor, blood dyscrasias
Ranolazine (not classified), PO: 500–1000 mg q 12 h VT INa, IKr Slowed sinus rate, QTc prolongation Metabolism: hepatic Bradycardia, hypotension, headache, dizziness, syncope, nausea, dyspnea
Sotalol (III), IV: 75 mg q 12 h, PO: 80–120 mg q 12 h, may increase dose every 3 d; max 320 mg/d VT, VF, PVC B1, B2 IKr Slowed sinus rate, QTc prolongation, increased AV nodal refractoriness, decreased defibrillation threshold Metabolism: none Bradycardia, hypotension, HF, syncope, TdP, fatigue, dizziness, weakness, dyspnea, bronchitis, depression, nausea, diarrhea
Verapamil, IV: 2.5–5 mg q 15–30 min, sustained release PO: 240–480 mg/d RVOT VT, verapamil-sensitive idiopathic Left VT ICa-L Slowed sinus rate,PR prolongation, slowed AV nodal conduction Metabolism: hepatic Hypotension, edema, HF, AV block, bradycardia, exacerbation of HF reduced EF, headache, rash, gingival hyperplasia, constipation, dyspepsia

Electrolytes

Fatty acids, Lipids


Specific recommendation

Management of patients with Polymorphic Ventricular arrhythmia

 
 
 
Polymorphic Ventricular arrhythmia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Underlying etiology
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Acute ischemia
 
External precipitating factors
 
Polymorphic Ventricular Arrhythmia triggered by unifocal PVC
 
Acquired long QT
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Primary electrical disease
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Approach to STEMI
 
Treatment of underlying condition (Class I)
 
Catheter ablation (Class IIa)
 
 
Remove precipitating factors (Class I)
  • Mg++/K+ i.v.(Class I)
  • Isoproterenol (Class I)
  • Pacing (Class I)
    •  
     
     
    		Brugada, Early repolarization syndrome
     
    		Idiopathic VF
     
    		Long QT, CPVT
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Recurrent Ventricular arrhythmia
     
     
     
    		Recurrent Ventricular arrhythmia
     
    		Recurrent Ventricular arrhythmia
     
     
    		Isoproterenol (Class IIa)
     
    		Isoproterenol (Class IIa)
  • Quinidine (Class IIa)
  • Verapamil (Class IIa
  • Catheter ablation of PVC triggers (Class IIa)
    •  
    		Beta-blocker (Class I)
  • Pacing (Class I)
  • Mg++/K+ i.v (Class I)
  • Antiarrhythmic drugs according to underlying disease (Class 2a)
  • Autonomic modulation (Class 2a)
    •  
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
     
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
  • Mechanical circulatory support (Class IIb)
    •  
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
  • Mechanical circulatory support (Class IIb)
    •  
     
    		Recurrent ventricular arrhythmia
     
    		Recurrent ventricular arrhythmia
     
    		Recurrent ventricular arrhythmia
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
     
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
  • Mechanical circulatory support (Class IIb)
    •  
    		Deep sedation/ intubation (Class IIa)
  • Mechanical circulatory support (Class IIb)
    •  
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    The above algorithm adopted from 2022 ESC Guideline[38]

    Management of sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia

    Recommendations for acute management of sustained VT
    DC cardiovertion (Class I, Level of Evidence B):

    ❑ DC cardioversion is recommended as the first-line therapy for hemodynamically not-tolerated sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia

    DC cardiovertion (Class I, Level of Evidence C) :

    ❑ DC cardioversion is recommended as the first-line treatment for patients presenting with tolerated sustained monomorphic VT when anesthetic/sedation risk is low

    Supraventricular tachycardia (Class IIa, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑ In patients presenting with a regular hemodynamically tolerated wide QRS complex tachycardia suspected for supraventricular tachycardia, administration of adenosine or vagal maneuvers should be considered

    Procainamide (Class IIa, Level of Evidence B)

    ❑In patients presenting with a hemodynamically tolerated sustained monomorphic VT and presence of structural heart disease, intravenous procainamide should be considered

    Flecainide, ajmaline, sotalol (Class IIb, Level of Evidence B)

    ❑In patients presenting with a hemodynamically tolerated sustained monomorphic VT in the absence of significant structural heart disease, flecainide, ajmaline, or sotalol may be considered

    Verapamil (Class III, Level of Evidence B)

    ❑Intravenous verapamil is not recommended in wide QRS complex tachycardia of unknown mechanism

    The above table adopted from 2022 ESC Guideline[38]

    Management of electrical storm

    Recommendations for management of electrical storm
    Sedation (Class I, Level of Evidence C):

    ❑ Mild to moderate sedation is recommended in patients with the electrical storm to reduce psychological distress and reduce sympathetic tone

    Strucrural heart disease (Class I, Level of Evidence B) :

    ❑ Antiarrhythmic therapy with beta-blockers (non-selective preferred) in combination with intravenous amiodarone is recommended in patients with structural heart disease and electrical storm unless contraindicated
    ❑Catheter ablation is recommended in patients presenting with incessant VT or electrical storm due to sustained monomorphic VT refractory to antiarrhythmic drugs

    Torsades depointes (Class I, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑ Intravenous magnesium with supplementation of potassium is recommended in patients with TdP
    ❑Isoproterenol or transvenous pacing to increase heart rate is recommended in patients with acquired LQT syndrome and recurrent TdP despite correction of precipitating conditions and magnesium

    Procainamide (Class IIa, Level of Evidence B)

    ❑In patients presenting with a hemodynamically tolerated sustained monomorphic VT and presence of structural heart disease, intravenous procainamide should be considered

    Intubation (Class IIa, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑Deep sedation/intubation should be considered in patients with an intractable electrical storm non-responsive drug treatment

    ❑Catheter ablation should be considered in patients with recurrent episodes of VT/VF triggered by a similar PVC, refractory to medical treatment or coronary revascularization

    Quinidine (Class IIb, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑Quinidine may be considered in patients with coronary artery disease and electrical storm due to recurrent VT refractory to other antiarrhythmic drugs

    Refractory electerical storm (Class IIb, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑Autonomic modulation may be considered in patients with electrical storm refractory to medical therapy and in whom catheter ablation is ineffective or not possible
    ❑ Mechanical circulatory support may be considered in the management of drug-refractory electrical storm and [[cardiogenic shock]]

    The above table adopted from 2022 ESC Guideline[38]

    Recommendations for treatment with heart failure medication

    Class I
    "Optimal medical treatment including ACE-I/ARB/ ARNIs, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, beta-blockers, and SGLT2 inhibitors is indicated in all heart failure patients with reduced EF' (Level of Evidence A)"
    The above table adopted from 2022 ESC Guideline[38]

    Notes

    use of beta blockers lessened mortality rate.[50]

    • Prophylactic use of Higher dose amiodarone after MI increase mortality, whereas moderate dose amiodarone was not superior to placebo.[51]


     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Sustained monomorphic VT
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Hemodynamic stability
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Stable
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Unstable
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		12-Lead ECG, history, physical exam
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Dirrect current cardioversion,ACLS
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Notifying disease causing VT
     
     
     
    		Cardioversion(class1)
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		VT termination
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Structural heart disease
     
     
     
    		Intravenous procainamide (class2a)
     
     
     
     
     
    		Yes, therapy of underlying heart disease
     
    		NO, cardioversion (class1)
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		NO, Ideopathic VT
     
     
     
    		Intravenous amiodarone or sotalole (class2b)
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		VT termination
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Verapamil sensitive VT: Verapamil outflow tract VT: betablocker (class2a)
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Effective
     
    		Non effective: cardioversion
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Yes,therapy of underlying heart disease
     
    		NO, Sedation ,anesthesia, reassessing antiarrhythmic therapy, repeating cardioversion
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Therapy to prevent recurrence of VT
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		No VT termination
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    		Catheter ablation (class1)
     
     
    Catheter ablation (class1)
     
    		Verapamil , betablocker (class2a)
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
     
    The above algorithm adopted from 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline

    Comments




    Recommendations for treatment of recurrent ventricular tachycardia in ischemic heart disease
    Medications (Class I, Level of Evidence B):

    ❑ In patients with IHD and recurrent symptomatic ventricular tachycardia and frequent ICD shocks despite programming, betablocker, sotalol, amiodarone is recommended for supression of arrhythmia
    ❑ In patients with period MI and presence of VT storm refractory to amiodarone or other antiarrhythmic drugs, catheter ablation is recommended

    Catheter ablation (Class IIb, Level of Evidence C) :

    ❑ Catheter ablation can be the first line therapy for recurrent sustained monomorphic VT in IHD

    (Class III, Level of Evidence C)

    ❑ Class IC antiarrhythmic drugs (flecainide, propafenone ) is harmful for supression of ventricular tachycardia in patients with perior MI
    ❑ In patients with incessant VT/VF, after controlling tachyarrhythmia ICD should be implanted due to avoiding of repeated ICD shocks
    ❑ In patients with recurrent monomorphic VT , only revascularization is ineffective for preventing of tachyarrhythmia

    The above table adopted from 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline[2]

    Message

    Recommendations for treatment of recurrent ventricular tachycardia in non-ischemic heart disease
    Amiodarone, sotalol (Class IIa, Level of Evidence B):

    ❑ Amiodarone or sotalol is recommended in the presensence of recurrent ventricular arrhythmia and frequent ICD shocks despite optimal programming or beta blocker therapy

    Catheter ablation (Class IIa, Level of Evidence B) :

    ❑ In the setting of frequent ventricular arrhythmia despite optimal ICD programming or failed antiarrhythmic medications, catheter ablation is recommended

    The above table adopted from 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline[2]

    References

    1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Bunch, T. Jared; Mahapatra, Srijoy; Murdock, David; Molden, Jamie; Weiss, J. Peter; May, Heidi T.; Bair, Tami L.; Mader, Katy M.; Crandall, Brian G.; Day, John D.; Osborn, Jeffrey S.; Muhlestein, Joseph B.; Lappe, Donald L.; Anderson, Jeffrey L. (2011). "Ranolazine Reduces Ventricular Tachycardia Burden and ICD Shocks in Patients with Drug-Refractory ICD Shocks". Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology. 34 (12): 1600–1606. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.2011.03208.x. ISSN 0147-8389.
    2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Al-Khatib, Sana M.; Stevenson, William G.; Ackerman, Michael J.; Bryant, William J.; Callans, David J.; Curtis, Anne B.; Deal, Barbara J.; Dickfeld, Timm; Field, Michael E.; Fonarow, Gregg C.; Gillis, Anne M.; Granger, Christopher B.; Hammill, Stephen C.; Hlatky, Mark A.; Joglar, José A.; Kay, G. Neal; Matlock, Daniel D.; Myerburg, Robert J.; Page, Richard L. (2018). "2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death". Circulation. 138 (13). doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000549. ISSN 0009-7322.
    3. ↑ Kudenchuk, Peter J.; Brown, Siobhan P.; Daya, Mohamud; Rea, Thomas; Nichol, Graham; Morrison, Laurie J.; Leroux, Brian; Vaillancourt, Christian; Wittwer, Lynn; Callaway, Clifton W.; Christenson, James; Egan, Debra; Ornato, Joseph P.; Weisfeldt, Myron L.; Stiell, Ian G.; Idris, Ahamed H.; Aufderheide, Tom P.; Dunford, James V.; Colella, M. Riccardo; Vilke, Gary M.; Brienza, Ashley M.; Desvigne-Nickens, Patrice; Gray, Pamela C.; Gray, Randal; Seals, Norman; Straight, Ron; Dorian, Paul (2016). "Amiodarone, Lidocaine, or Placebo in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest". New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (18): 1711–1722. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1514204. ISSN 0028-4793.
    4. ↑ Mazzanti, Andrea; Maragna, Riccardo; Faragli, Alessandro; Monteforte, Nicola; Bloise, Raffaella; Memmi, Mirella; Novelli, Valeria; Baiardi, Paola; Bagnardi, Vincenzo; Etheridge, Susan P.; Napolitano, Carlo; Priori, Silvia G. (2016). "Gene-Specific Therapy With Mexiletine Reduces Arrhythmic Events in Patients With Long QT Syndrome Type 3". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 67 (9): 1053–1058. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2015.12.033. ISSN 0735-1097.
    5. ↑ Watanabe, Hiroshi; Chopra, Nagesh; Laver, Derek; Hwang, Hyun Seok; Davies, Sean S; Roach, Daniel E; Duff, Henry J; Roden, Dan M; Wilde, Arthur A M; Knollmann, Björn C (2009). "Flecainide prevents catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in mice and humans". Nature Medicine. 15 (4): 380–383. doi:10.1038/nm.1942. ISSN 1078-8956.
    6. ↑ Scirica, Benjamin M.; Braunwald, Eugene; Belardinelli, Luiz; Hedgepeth, Chester M.; Spinar, Jindrich; Wang, Whedy; Qin, Jie; Karwatowska-Prokopczuk, Ewa; Verheugt, Freek W.A.; Morrow, David A. (2010). "Relationship Between Nonsustained Ventricular Tachycardia After Non–ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome and Sudden Cardiac Death". Circulation. 122 (5): 455–462. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.937136. ISSN 0009-7322.
    7. ↑ Zareba, Wojciech; Daubert, James P.; Beck, Christopher A.; Huang, David T.; Alexis, Jeffrey D.; Brown, Mary W.; Pyykkonen, Kathryn; McNitt, Scott; Oakes, David; Feng, Changyong; Aktas, Mehmet K.; Ayala-Parades, Felix; Baranchuk, Adrian; Dubuc, Marc; Haigney, Mark; Mazur, Alexander; McPherson, Craig A.; Mitchell, L. Brent; Natale, Andrea; Piccini, Jonathan P.; Raitt, Merritt; Rashtian, Mayer Y.; Schuger, Claudio; Winters, Stephen; Worley, Seth J.; Ziv, Ohad; Moss, Arthur J.; Zareba, W.; Pyykkonen, K.; Buttaccio, A.; Perkins, E.; DeGrey, D.; Robertson, S.; Moss, A.J.; Brown, M.; Lansing, R.; Oberer, A.; Polonsky, B.; Ross, V.; Papernov, A.; Schleede, S.; Beck, C.; Oakes, D.; Feng, C.; McNitt S, S.; Hall, W.J.; Zareba, W.; Moss, A.; Daubert, J.; Beck, C.; Brown, M.; Huang, D.; Winters, S.; Schuger, C.; Haigney, M.; Piccini, J.; Alexis, J.; Chen, L.; Miller, A.; Richeson, J.F.; Rosero, S.; Huang, D.; Kutyifa, V.; Shah, A.; Lamas, G.; Cohn, F.; Harrell, F.; Piña, I.; Poole, J.; Sullivan, M.; Lathrop, D.; Geller, N.; Boineau, R.; Trondell, J.; Cooper, L.; Itturiaga, E.; Boineau, R.; Gottlieb, C.; Greer, S.; Perzanowski, C.; McPherson, C.; Hedgepeth, C.; Assal, C.; Salam, T.; Woollett, I.; Tomassoni, G.; Ayala-Paredes, F.; Russo, A.; Punnam, S.; Sangrigoli, R.; Sloan, S.; Kutalek, S.; Piccini, J.; Sun, A.; Lustgarten, D.; Monir, G.; Haithcock, D.; Sorrentino, R.; Cannom, D.; Kluger, J.; Schuger, C.; Varanasi, S.; Rashtian, M.; Philippon, F.; Berger, R.; Mazzella, M.; Lessmeier, T.; Silver, J.; Worley, S.; Bernabei, M.; Esberg, D.; Dixon, M.; LeLorier, P.; Greenberg, Y.; Essebag, V.; Venkataraman, G.; Shinn, T.; Dubuc, M.; Winters, S.; Turitto, G.; Henrikson, C.; Mirro, M.; Raitt, M.; Baranchuk, A.; O'Neill, G.; Lockwood, E.; Vloka, M.; Hurwitz, J.; Mead, R.H.; Somasundarum, P.; Aziz, E.; Rashba, E.; Budzikowski, A.; Cox, M.; Natale, A.; Chung, E.; Ziv, O.; McGrew, F.; Tamirisa, K.; Greenspon, A.; Estes, M.; Taylor, S.; Janardhanan, R.; Mitchell, L.B.; Burke, M.; Attari, M.; Mikaelian, B.; Hsu, S.; Conti, J.; Mazur, A.; Shorofsky, S.; Rosenthal, L.; Sakaguchi, S.; Wolfe, D.; Flaker, G.; Saba, S.; Aktas, M.; Mason, P.; Shalaby, A.; Musat, D.; Abraham, R.; Ellenbogen, K.; Fellows, C.; Venkataraman, G.; Kavesh, N.; Thomas, G.; Hemsworth, D.; Williamson, B. (2018). "Ranolazine in High-Risk Patients With Implanted Cardioverter-Defibrillators". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 72 (6): 636–645. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2018.04.086. ISSN 0735-1097.
    8. ↑ Reiter, Michael J.; Reiffel, James A. (1998). "Importance of beta blockade in the therapy of serious ventricular arrhythmias". The American Journal of Cardiology. 82 (4): 9I–19I. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(98)00468-8. ISSN 0002-9149.
    9. ↑ "Effect of metoprolol CR/XL in chronic heart failure: Metoprolol CR/XL Randomised Intervention Trial in Congestive Heart Failure (MERIT-HF)". Lancet. 353 (9169): 2001–7. June 1999. PMID 10376614.
    10. ↑ Kontos, Michael C.; Diercks, Debra B.; Ho, P. Michael; Wang, Tracy Y.; Chen, Anita Y.; Roe, Matthew T. (2011). "Treatment and outcomes in patients with myocardial infarction treated with acute β-blocker therapy: Results from the American College of Cardiology's NCDR®". American Heart Journal. 161 (5): 864–870. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2011.01.006. ISSN 0002-8703.
    11. ↑ Hirsowitz, Geoffrey; Podrid, Philip J.; Lampert, Steven; Stein, Joseph; Lown, Bernard (1986). "The role of beta blocking agents as adjunct therapy to membrane stabilizing drugs in malignant ventricular arrhythmia". American Heart Journal. 111 (5): 852–860. doi:10.1016/0002-8703(86)90633-2. ISSN 0002-8703.
    12. ↑ Bardy, Gust H.; Lee, Kerry L.; Mark, Daniel B.; Poole, Jeanne E.; Packer, Douglas L.; Boineau, Robin; Domanski, Michael; Troutman, Charles; Anderson, Jill; Johnson, George; McNulty, Steven E.; Clapp-Channing, Nancy; Davidson-Ray, Linda D.; Fraulo, Elizabeth S.; Fishbein, Daniel P.; Luceri, Richard M.; Ip, John H. (2005). "Amiodarone or an Implantable Cardioverter–Defibrillator for Congestive Heart Failure". New England Journal of Medicine. 352 (3): 225–237. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa043399. ISSN 0028-4793.
    13. ↑ Thomas, Kevin L.; Al-Khatib, Sana M.; Lokhnygina, Yuliya; Solomon, Scott D.; Kober, Lars; McMurray, John J.V.; Califf, Robert M.; Velazquez, Eric J. (2008). "Amiodarone use after acute myocardial infarction complicated by heart failure and/or left ventricular dysfunction may be associated with excess mortality". American Heart Journal. 155 (1): 87–93. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2007.09.010. ISSN 0002-8703.
    14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Claro, Juan Carlos; Candia, Roberto; Rada, Gabriel; Baraona, Fernando; Larrondo, Francisco; Letelier, Luz M (2015). "Amiodarone versus other pharmacological interventions for prevention of sudden cardiac death". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD008093.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858.
    15. ↑ Kudenchuk, Peter J.; Cobb, Leonard A.; Copass, Michael K.; Cummins, Richard O.; Doherty, Alidene M.; Fahrenbruch, Carol E.; Hallstrom, Alfred P.; Murray, William A.; Olsufka, Michele; Walsh, Thomas (1999). "Amiodarone for Resuscitation after Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest Due to Ventricular Fibrillation". New England Journal of Medicine. 341 (12): 871–878. doi:10.1056/NEJM199909163411203. ISSN 0028-4793.
    16. ↑ Epstein, Andrew E.; Olshansky, Brian; Naccarelli, Gerald V.; Kennedy, John I.; Murphy, Elizabeth J.; Goldschlager, Nora (2016). "Practical Management Guide for Clinicians Who Treat Patients with Amiodarone". The American Journal of Medicine. 129 (5): 468–475. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.08.039. ISSN 0002-9343.
    17. ↑ Waldo AL, Camm AJ, deRuyter H, Freidman PL, MacNeil DJ, Pitt B, Pratt CM, Rodda BE, Schwartz PJ (May 1995). "Survival with oral d-sotalol in patients with left ventricular dysfunction after myocardial infarction: rationale, design, and methods (the SWORD trial)". Am J Cardiol. 75 (15): 1023–7. doi:10.1016/s0002-9149(99)80717-6. PMID 7747682.
    18. ↑ Page, Richard L (2000). "Effects of antiarrhythmic medication on implantable cardioverter-defibrillator function". The American Journal of Cardiology. 85 (12): 1481–1485. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(00)00799-2. ISSN 0002-9149.
    19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Buxton, Alfred E.; Marchlinski, Francis E.; Doherty, John U.; Flores, Belinda; Josephson, Mark E. (1987). "Hazards of intravenous verapamil for sustained ventricular tachycardia". The American Journal of Cardiology. 59 (12): 1107–1110. doi:10.1016/0002-9149(87)90857-5. ISSN 0002-9149.
    20. ↑ Gill, Jaswinder S.; Ward, David E.; Camm, A. John (1992). "Comparison of Verapamil and Diltiazem in the Suppression of Idiopathic Ventricular Tachycardia". Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology. 15 (11): 2122–2126. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1992.tb03033.x. ISSN 0147-8389.
    21. ↑ Badhwar, Nitish; Scheinman, Melvin M. (2007). "Idiopathic Ventricular Tachycardia: Diagnosis and Management". Current Problems in Cardiology. 32 (1): 7–43. doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2006.10.002. ISSN 0146-2806.
    22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Cooper, Howard A.; Dries, Daniel L.; Davis, C. E.; Shen, Yuan Li; Domanski, Michael J. (1999). "Diuretics and Risk of Arrhythmic Death in Patients With Left Ventricular Dysfunction". Circulation. 100 (12): 1311–1315. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.100.12.1311. ISSN 0009-7322.
    23. ↑ Yan, Gan-Xin; Antzelevitch, Charles (1998). "Cellular Basis for the Normal T Wave and the Electrocardiographic Manifestations of the Long-QT Syndrome". Circulation. 98 (18): 1928–1936. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.98.18.1928. ISSN 0009-7322.
    24. ↑ Tzivoni, D; Banai, S; Schuger, C; Benhorin, J; Keren, A; Gottlieb, S; Stern, S (1988). "Treatment of torsade de pointes with magnesium sulfate". Circulation. 77 (2): 392–397. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.77.2.392. ISSN 0009-7322.
    25. ↑ Cohn, Jay N.; Kowey, Peter R.; Whelton, Paul K.; Prisant, L. Michael (2000). "New Guidelines for Potassium Replacement in Clinical Practice". Archives of Internal Medicine. 160 (16): 2429. doi:10.1001/archinte.160.16.2429. ISSN 0003-9926.
    26. ↑ Goyal, Abhinav; Spertus, John A.; Gosch, Kensey; Venkitachalam, Lakshmi; Jones, Philip G.; Van den Berghe, Greet; Kosiborod, Mikhail (2012). "Serum Potassium Levels and Mortality in Acute Myocardial Infarction". JAMA. 307 (2): 157. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1967. ISSN 0098-7484.
    27. ↑ Antman, Elliott M (2002). "Early administration of intravenous magnesium to high-risk patients with acute myocardial infarction in the Magnesium in Coronaries (MAGIC) Trial: a randomised controlled trial". The Lancet. 360 (9341): 1189–1196. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11278-5. ISSN 0140-6736.
    28. ↑ Leaf, Alexander; Kang, Jing X.; Xiao, Yong-Fu; Billman, George E. (2003). "Clinical Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death by n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Mechanism of Prevention of Arrhythmias by n-3 Fish Oils". Circulation. 107 (21): 2646–2652. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000069566.78305.33. ISSN 0009-7322.
    29. ↑ Marchioli, Roberto; Barzi, Federica; Bomba, Elena; Chieffo, Carmine; Di Gregorio, Domenico; Di Mascio, Rocco; Franzosi, Maria Grazia; Geraci, Enrico; Levantesi, Giacomo; Maggioni, Aldo Pietro; Mantini, Loredana; Marfisi, Rosa Maria; Mastrogiuseppe, G.; Mininni, Nicola; Nicolosi, Gian Luigi; Santini, Massimo; Schweiger, Carlo; Tavazzi, Luigi; Tognoni, Gianni; Tucci, Corrado; Valagussa, Franco (2002). "Early Protection Against Sudden Death by n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids After Myocardial Infarction". Circulation. 105 (16): 1897–1903. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000014682.14181.F2. ISSN 0009-7322.
    30. ↑ "n–3 Fatty Acids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Dysglycemia". New England Journal of Medicine. 367 (4): 309–318. 2012. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1203859. ISSN 0028-4793.
    31. ↑ LaRosa, John C.; He, Jiang; Vupputuri, Suma (1999). "Effect of Statins on Risk of Coronary Disease". JAMA. 282 (24): 2340. doi:10.1001/jama.282.24.2340. ISSN 0098-7484.
    32. ↑ Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, Barlera S, Franzosi MG, Latini R, Lucci D, Nicolosi GL, Porcu M, Tognoni G (October 2008). "Effect of rosuvastatin in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Lancet. 372 (9645): 1231–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61240-4. PMID 18757089.
    33. ↑ Cohn JN, Johnson G, Ziesche S, Cobb F, Francis G, Tristani F, Smith R, Dunkman WB, Loeb H, Wong M (August 1991). "A comparison of enalapril with hydralazine-isosorbide dinitrate in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure". N Engl J Med. 325 (5): 303–10. doi:10.1056/NEJM199108013250502. PMID 2057035.
    34. ↑ "The Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II (CIBIS-II): a randomised trial". Lancet. 353 (9146): 9–13. January 1999. PMID 10023943.
    35. ↑ Dargie HJ (May 2001). "Effect of carvedilol on outcome after myocardial infarction in patients with left-ventricular dysfunction: the CAPRICORN randomised trial". Lancet. 357 (9266): 1385–90. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)04560-8. PMID 11356434.
    36. ↑ Hjalmarson A, Goldstein S, Fagerberg B, Wedel H, Waagstein F, Kjekshus J, Wikstrand J, El Allaf D, Vítovec J, Aldershvile J, Halinen M, Dietz R, Neuhaus KL, Jánosi A, Thorgeirsson G, Dunselman PH, Gullestad L, Kuch J, Herlitz J, Rickenbacher P, Ball S, Gottlieb S, Deedwania P (March 2000). "Effects of controlled-release metoprolol on total mortality, hospitalizations, and well-being in patients with heart failure: the Metoprolol CR/XL Randomized Intervention Trial in congestive heart failure (MERIT-HF). MERIT-HF Study Group". JAMA. 283 (10): 1295–302. doi:10.1001/jama.283.10.1295. PMID 10714728.
    37. ↑ Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, Palensky J, Wittes J (September 1999). "The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators". N Engl J Med. 341 (10): 709–17. doi:10.1056/NEJM199909023411001. PMID 10471456.
    38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Zeppenfeld K, Tfelt-Hansen J, de Riva M, Winkel BG, Behr ER, Blom NA, Charron P, Corrado D, Dagres N, de Chillou C, Eckardt L, Friede T, Haugaa KH, Hocini M, Lambiase PD, Marijon E, Merino JL, Peichl P, Priori SG, Reichlin T, Schulz-Menger J, Sticherling C, Tzeis S, Verstrael A, Volterrani M (August 2022). "2022 ESC Guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death". Eur Heart J. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehac262. PMID 36017572 Check |pmid= value (help).
    39. ↑ Zipes, Douglas P.; Camm, A. John; Borggrefe, Martin; Buxton, Alfred E.; Chaitman, Bernard; Fromer, Martin; Gregoratos, Gabriel; Klein, George; Moss, Arthur J.; Myerburg, Robert J.; Priori, Silvia G.; Quinones, Miguel A.; Roden, Dan M.; Silka, Michael J.; Tracy, Cynthia (2006). "ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death". Circulation. 114 (10). doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.178233. ISSN 0009-7322.
    40. ↑ Sasson, Comilla; Rogers, Mary A.M.; Dahl, Jason; Kellermann, Arthur L. (2010). "Predictors of Survival From Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest". Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes. 3 (1): 63–81. doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.109.889576. ISSN 1941-7713.
    41. ↑ Connolly, S (2000). "Meta-analysis of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator secondary prevention trials". European Heart Journal. 21 (24): 2071–2078. doi:10.1053/euhj.2000.2476. ISSN 0195-668X.
    42. ↑ Spaulding, Christian M.; Joly, Luc-Marie; Rosenberg, Alain; Monchi, Mehran; Weber, Simon N.; Dhainaut, Jean-François A.; Carli, Pierre (1997). "Immediate Coronary Angiography in Survivors of Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest". New England Journal of Medicine. 336 (23): 1629–1633. doi:10.1056/NEJM199706053362302. ISSN 0028-4793.
    43. ↑ Zanuttini, Davide; Armellini, Ilaria; Nucifora, Gaetano; Carchietti, Elio; Trillò, Giulio; Spedicato, Leonardo; Bernardi, Guglielmo; Proclemer, Alessandro (2012). "Impact of Emergency Coronary Angiography on In-Hospital Outcome of Unconscious Survivors After Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest". The American Journal of Cardiology. 110 (12): 1723–1728. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2012.08.006. ISSN 0002-9149.
    44. ↑ Dumas, Florence; Bougouin, Wulfran; Geri, Guillaume; Lamhaut, Lionel; Rosencher, Julien; Pène, Frédéric; Chiche, Jean-Daniel; Varenne, Olivier; Carli, Pierre; Jouven, Xavier; Mira, Jean-Paul; Spaulding, Christian; Cariou, Alain (2016). "Emergency Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Post–Cardiac Arrest Patients Without ST-Segment Elevation Pattern". JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions. 9 (10): 1011–1018. doi:10.1016/j.jcin.2016.02.001. ISSN 1936-8798.
    45. ↑ Somberg, John C; Bailin, Steven J; Haffajee, Charles I; Paladino, Walter P; Kerin, Nicholas Z; Bridges, Duane; Timar, Sandor; Molnar, Janos (2002). "Intravenous lidocaine versus intravenous amiodarone (in a new aqueous formulation) for incessant ventricular tachycardia". The American Journal of Cardiology. 90 (8): 853–859. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(02)02707-8. ISSN 0002-9149.
    46. ↑ Gorgels, Anton P.M.; van den Dool, Adri; Hofs, Anton; Mulleneers, Rob; Smeets, Joep L.R.M.; Vos, Marc A.; Wellens, Hein J.J. (1996). "Comparison of procainamide and lidocaine in terminating sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia". The American Journal of Cardiology. 78 (1): 43–46. doi:10.1016/S0002-9149(96)00224-X. ISSN 0002-9149.
    47. ↑ Callaham M, Madsen CD, Barton CW, Saunders CE, Pointer J (November 1992). "A randomized clinical trial of high-dose epinephrine and norepinephrine vs standard-dose epinephrine in prehospital cardiac arrest". JAMA. 268 (19): 2667–72. PMID 1433686.
    48. ↑ Link, Mark S.; Berkow, Lauren C.; Kudenchuk, Peter J.; Halperin, Henry R.; Hess, Erik P.; Moitra, Vivek K.; Neumar, Robert W.; O’Neil, Brian J.; Paxton, James H.; Silvers, Scott M.; White, Roger D.; Yannopoulos, Demetris; Donnino, Michael W. (2015). "Part 7: Adult Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support". Circulation. 132 (18 suppl 2): S444–S464. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000261. ISSN 0009-7322.
    49. ↑ Hassan, T B (2002). "A randomised trial to investigate the efficacy of magnesium sulphate for refractory ventricular fibrillation". Emergency Medicine Journal. 19 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1136/emj.19.1.57. ISSN 1472-0205.
    50. ↑ Teo KK, Yusuf S, Furberg CD (October 1993). "Effects of prophylactic antiarrhythmic drug therapy in acute myocardial infarction. An overview of results from randomized controlled trials". JAMA. 270 (13): 1589–95. PMID 8371471.
    51. ↑ Elizari, M (2000). "Morbidity and mortality following early administration of amiodarone in acute myocardial infarction". European Heart Journal. 21 (3): 198–205. doi:10.1053/euhj.1999.1687. ISSN 0195-668X.
    52. ↑ Kettering, Klaus; Mewis, Christian; Dornberger, Volker; Vonthein, Reinhard; Bosch, Ralph F.; Kuhlkamp, Volker (2002). "Efficacy of Metoprolol and Sotalol in the Prevention of Recurrences of Sustained Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias in Patients with an Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator". Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology. 25 (11): 1571–1576. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9592.2002.01571.x. ISSN 0147-8389.
    53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Connolly, Stuart J. (2006). "Comparison of β-Blockers, Amiodarone Plus β-Blockers, or Sotalol for Prevention of Shocks From Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators<SUBTITLE>The OPTIC Study: A Randomized Trial</SUBTITLE>". JAMA. 295 (2): 165. doi:10.1001/jama.295.2.165. ISSN 0098-7484.
    54. ↑ Tung, Roderick; Vaseghi, Marmar; Frankel, David S.; Vergara, Pasquale; Di Biase, Luigi; Nagashima, Koichi; Yu, Ricky; Vangala, Sitaram; Tseng, Chi-Hong; Choi, Eue-Keun; Khurshid, Shaan; Patel, Mehul; Mathuria, Nilesh; Nakahara, Shiro; Tzou, Wendy S.; Sauer, William H.; Vakil, Kairav; Tedrow, Usha; Burkhardt, J. David; Tholakanahalli, Venkatakrishna N.; Saliaris, Anastasios; Dickfeld, Timm; Weiss, J. Peter; Bunch, T. Jared; Reddy, Madhu; Kanmanthareddy, Arun; Callans, David J.; Lakkireddy, Dhanunjaya; Natale, Andrea; Marchlinski, Francis; Stevenson, William G.; Della Bella, Paolo; Shivkumar, Kalyanam (2015). "Freedom from recurrent ventricular tachycardia after catheter ablation is associated with improved survival in patients with structural heart disease: An International VT Ablation Center Collaborative Group study". Heart Rhythm. 12 (9): 1997–2007. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2015.05.036. ISSN 1547-5271.
    55. ↑ Echt, Debra S.; Liebson, Philip R.; Mitchell, L. Brent; Peters, Robert W.; Obias-Manno, Dulce; Barker, Allan H.; Arensberg, Daniel; Baker, Andrea; Friedman, Lawrence; Greene, H. Leon; Huther, Melissa L.; Richardson, David W. (1991). "Mortality and Morbidity in Patients Receiving Encainide, Flecainide, or Placebo". New England Journal of Medicine. 324 (12): 781–788. doi:10.1056/NEJM199103213241201. ISSN 0028-4793.
    56. ↑ Brugada, Josep; Aguinaga, Luis; Mont, Lluı́s; Betriu, Amadeu; Mulet, Jaume; Sanz, Ginés (2001). "Coronary artery revascularization in patients with sustained ventricular arrhythmias in the chronic phase of a myocardial infarction: effects on the electrophysiologic substrate and outcome". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 37 (2): 529–533. doi:10.1016/S0735-1097(00)01133-5. ISSN 0735-1097.
    57. ↑ Berntsen, R. F.; Gunnes, P.; Lie, M.; Rasmussen, K. (1993). "Surgical revascularization in the treatment of ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation exposed by exercise-induced ischaemia". European Heart Journal. 14 (10): 1297–1303. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/14.10.1297. ISSN 0195-668X.
    58. ↑ Naruse, Yoshihisa; Sekiguchi, Yukio; Nogami, Akihiko; Okada, Hiroyuki; Yamauchi, Yasuteru; Machino, Takeshi; Kuroki, Kenji; Ito, Yoko; Yamasaki, Hiro; Igarashi, Miyako; Tada, Hiroshi; Nitta, Junichi; Xu, Dongzhu; Sato, Akira; Aonuma, Kazutaka (2014). "Systematic Treatment Approach to Ventricular Tachycardia in Cardiac Sarcoidosis". Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology. 7 (3): 407–413. doi:10.1161/CIRCEP.113.000734. ISSN 1941-3149.
    59. ↑ Dinov, Borislav; Fiedler, Lukas; Schönbauer, Robert; Bollmann, Andreas; Rolf, Sascha; Piorkowski, Christopher; Hindricks, Gerhard; Arya, Arash (2014). "Outcomes in Catheter Ablation of Ventricular Tachycardia in Dilated Nonischemic Cardiomyopathy Compared With Ischemic Cardiomyopathy". Circulation. 129 (7): 728–736. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.003063. ISSN 0009-7322.

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