Hypercalcemia diagnostic study of choice: Difference between revisions

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Created page with "__NOTOC__ {{Hypercalcemia}} {{CMG}}; {{AE}} == Overview == == Diagnostic Study of Choice == === Study of choice === * [Name of the investigation] is the gold standard test f..."
 
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__NOTOC__
__NOTOC__
{{Hypercalcemia}}
{{Hypercalcemia}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{Anmol}}
== Overview ==
== Overview ==
Serum calcium levels is the study of choice for the diagnosis of hypercalcemia. However, a panel of tests may be required to reach the underlying cause of hypercalcemia.


== Diagnostic Study of Choice ==
== Diagnostic Study of Choice ==


=== Study of choice ===
=== Study of choice ===
* [Name of the investigation] is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of [disease name].
* Serum calcium levels is the study of choice for the diagnosis of hypercalcemia.
* The following result of [gold standard test] is confirmatory of [disease name]:
* However, a panel of tests may be required to reach the underlying cause of hypercalcemia.
** Result 1
** Result 2
* The [name of the investigation] should be performed when:
** The patient presented with symptoms/signs 1. 2, 3.
** A positive [test] is detected in the patient.
* [Name of the investigation] is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of [disease name].
* The diagnostic study of choice for [disease name] is [name of the investigation].
* There is no single diagnostic study of choice for the diagnosis of [disease name].
* There is no single diagnostic study of choice for the diagnosis of [disease name], but [disease name] can be diagnosed based on [name of the investigation 1] and [name of the investigation 2].
* [Disease name] is mainly diagnosed based on clinical presentation.
* Investigations:
** Among patients who present with clinical signs of [disease name], the [investigation name] is the most specific test for the diagnosis.
** Among patients who present with clinical signs of [disease name], the [investigation name] is the most sensitive test for diagnosis.
** Among patients who present with clinical signs of [disease name], the [investigation name] is the most efficient test for diagnosis.


==== The comparison of various diagnostic studies for [disease name] ====
==Diagnostic Approach==
{|
* The diagnostic approach for hypercalcemia.<ref name="pmid21812031">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT, Brandi ML, Clarke BL, Shoback D, Jüppner H, D'Amour P, Fox J, Rejnmark L, Mosekilde L, Rubin MR, Dempster D, Gafni R, Collins MT, Sliney J, Sanders J |title=Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research |journal=J. Bone Miner. Res. |volume=26 |issue=10 |pages=2317–37 |year=2011 |pmid=21812031 |pmc=3405491 |doi=10.1002/jbmr.483 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8964825">{{cite journal |vauthors=Silverberg SJ, Bilezikian JP |title=Evaluation and management of primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=81 |issue=6 |pages=2036–40 |year=1996 |pmid=8964825 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.6.8964825 |url=https://watermark.silverchair.com/api/watermark?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAfQwggHwBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggHhMIIB3QIBADCCAdYGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMs2QB8t_zFXzSZJ4bAgEQgIIBp8fw3_iunlmFW1rMhoY9MDPeg_lHu7iYzuIrfwXHubghqdXOMvdWyttCOOgR3PHFZtE5IkmNB4hRahVQsPzHGwh5kiBmLGp9W8OQwFxrCIH0sBqjOxOiYc_yGAs0ybxF1mEh929-YxivBBC43EW1yFtSmwplSQfAWah7w6yxXbUhV8umq3pGQxqYDClp47IR7TyVeEneWZz85Z7MS80V4c-yZPG1ZPxQR-1kPk3rdji_8bAeXwJKRGScWzKPqSEQvXFWLV4sHwqgTrU53HSkURUJb8u-w4EOHMjtUATJPoGgFsZOcrf_xtPBZmcI_v5G3RO_cJDHueDwQNfRaGIO2ztcToFGmVpER4vGhqfrtr7mXHPNPyUUOa-_KWPE-qxDrUCG8kevm0tM8MButJkAmVdBxrIC4mSd8sAZb3KcfSKt9RUXFJpIiDoOut21ZFEGEU8O7vwjw4RhxridsegEUiCFWCxHftX9qUqELn90AJ2Fg1olxH9jI46KnEJPd7MNYReTvdeX5erBZmXjmP5oCT6vLYUbRLjXxyJQRl-d5N9O0vfTgZ5bbA}}</ref><ref name="pmid686009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marx SJ, Spiegel AM, Brown EM, Koehler JO, Gardner DG, Brennan MF, Aurbach GD |title=Divalent cation metabolism. Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia versus typical primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=6http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0002934378908148?via%3Dihub5 |issue=2 |pages=235–42 |year=1978 |pmid=686009 |doi=10.1016/0002-9343(78)90814-8 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18650515">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shoback D |title=Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=359 |issue=4 |pages=391–403 |year=2008 |pmid=18650515 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp0803050 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11134112">{{cite journal |vauthors=Yamamoto M, Akatsu T, Nagase T, Ogata E |title=Comparison of hypocalcemic hypercalciuria between patients with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and those with gain-of-function mutations in the calcium-sensing receptor: is it possible to differentiate the two disorders? |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=85 |issue=12 |pages=4583–91 |year=2000 |pmid=11134112 |doi=10.1210/jcem.85.12.7035 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7356229">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marx SJ, Stock JL, Attie MF, Downs RW, Gardner DG, Brown EM, Spiegel AM, Doppman JL, Brennan MF |title=Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia: recognition among patients referred after unsuccessful parathyroid exploration |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=351–6 |year=1980 |pmid=7356229 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid26713296">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mirrakhimov AE |title=Hypercalcemia of Malignancy: An Update on Pathogenesis and Management |journal=N Am J Med Sci |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=483–93 |year=2015 |pmid=26713296 |pmc=4683803 |doi=10.4103/1947-2714.170600 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1346019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ratcliffe WA, Hutchesson AC, Bundred NJ, Ratcliffe JG |title=Role of assays for parathyroid-hormone-related protein in investigation of hypercalcaemia |journal=Lancet |volume=339 |issue=8786 |pages=164–7 |year=1992 |pmid=1346019 |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(92)90220-W |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7962324">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ikeda K, Ohno H, Hane M, Yokoi H, Okada M, Honma T, Yamada A, Tatsumi Y, Tanaka T, Saitoh T |title=Development of a sensitive two-site immunoradiometric assay for parathyroid hormone-related peptide: evidence for elevated levels in plasma from patients with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and B-cell lymphoma |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=1322–7 |year=1994 |pmid=7962324 |doi=10.1210/jcem.79.5.7962324 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12679445">{{cite journal |vauthors=Horwitz MJ, Tedesco MB, Sereika SM, Hollis BW, Garcia-Ocaña A, Stewart AF |title=Direct comparison of sustained infusion of human parathyroid hormone-related protein-(1-36) [hPTHrP-(1-36)] versus hPTH-(1-34) on serum calcium, plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and fractional calcium excretion in healthy human volunteers |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=1603–9 |year=2003 |pmid=12679445 |doi=10.1210/jc.2002-020773 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2918061">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mallette LE, Khouri K, Zengotita H, Hollis BW, Malini S |title=Lithium treatment increases intact and midregion parathyroid hormone and parathyroid volume |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=654–60 |year=1989 |pmid=2918061 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-654 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1313547">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacobus CH, Holick MF, Shao Q, Chen TC, Holm IA, Kolodny JM, Fuleihan GE, Seely EW |title=Hypervitaminosis D associated with drinking milk |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=326 |issue=18 |pages=1173–7 |year=1992 |pmid=1313547 |doi=10.1056/NEJM199204303261801 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8120527">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoeck HC, Laurberg G, Laurberg P |title=Hypercalcaemic crisis after excessive topical use of a vitamin D derivative |journal=J. Intern. Med. |volume=235 |issue=3 |pages=281–2 |year=1994 |pmid=8120527 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9215298">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dusso AS, Kamimura S, Gallieni M, Zhong M, Negrea L, Shapiro S, Slatopolsky E |title=gamma-Interferon-induced resistance to 1,25-(OH)2 D3 in human monocytes and macrophages: a mechanism for the hypercalcemia of various granulomatoses |journal=J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=82 |issue=7 |pages=2222–32 |year=1997 |pmid=9215298 |doi=10.1210/jcem.82.7.4074 |url=}}</ref>
|- style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" | Test
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Sensitivity
! style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Specificity
|-
! style="background: #696969; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Test 1
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |✔
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |...%
|-
! style="background: #696969; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;" |Test 2
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |...%
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |✔
|}
<small> ✔= The best test based on the feature </small>


===== Diagnostic results =====
<br><br>
The following result of [investigation name] is confirmatory of [disease name]:
{{Family tree/start}}
* Result 1
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | A01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |A01=[[Hypercalcemia]]}}
* Result 2
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
 
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | B01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |B01=Repeat (Check ionized calcium or [[Hypoparathyroidism laboratory findings#LaboratoryFindings|calcium corrected for albumin]])}}
===== Sequence of Diagnostic Studies =====
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
The [name of investigation] should be performed when:
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | C01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |C01=[[Hypercalcemia]] confirmed}}
* The patient presented with symptoms/signs 1, 2, and 3 as the first step of diagnosis.
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
* A positive [test] is detected in the patient, to confirm the diagnosis.
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | D01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |D01=Measure intact [[parathyroid hormone]] ([[PTH]])}}
 
{{Family tree| | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |}}
=== Diagnostic Criteria ===
{{Family tree| | | | | | | E01 | | | | | | | | E02 | | | | | | | E03 | | | | | | |E01=↑ [[PTH]]|E02=Mildly ↑ [[PTH]]|E03= ↓ [[PTH]]}}
* Here you should describe the details of the diagnostic criteria.
{{Family tree| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
*Always mention the name of the criteria/definition you are about to list (e.g. modified Duke criteria for the diagnosis of endocarditis / 3rd universal definition of MI) and cite the primary source of where this criteria/definition is found.
{{Family tree| | | | | | | F01 | | | | | | | | F02 | | | | | | | F03 | | | | | | |F01=[[Hyperparathyroidism]]|F02=Urinary calcium creatinine ratio|F03=Measure [[parathyroid hormone-related protein]] ([[PTHrP]]) and [[vitamin D]] metabolites}}
*Although not necessary, it is recommended that you include the criteria in a table. Make sure you always cite the source of the content and whether the table has been adapted from another source.
{{Family tree| | | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|^|-|-|.| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
*Be very clear as to the number of criteria (or threshold) that needs to be met out of the total number of criteria.
{{Family tree| | | | G01 | | | | G02 | | G03 | | | | G04 | | | | |!| | | | | | | |G01=↑ serum [[phosphate]]<br> History of [[renal transplantation]]|G02=↓/Normal [[phosphate]] levels|G03=↑ Urinary calcium creatinine ratio|G04=↓ Urinary calcium creatinine ratio}}
*Distinguish criteria based on their nature (e.g. clinical criteria / pathological criteria/ imaging criteria) before discussing them in details.
{{Family tree| | | | |!| | | | | |`|-|v|-|'| | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
*To view an example (endocarditis diagnostic criteria), click [[Endocarditis diagnosis|here]]
{{Family tree| | | | H01 | | | | | | H02 | | | | | | H03 | | | | |!| | | | | | | |H01=Tertiary hyperparathyroidism|H02=[[Primary hyperparathyroidism]]|H03= [[Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia]]}}
*If relevant, add additional information that might help the reader distinguish various criteria or the evolution of criteria (e.g. original criteria vs. modified criteria).
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |}}
*You may also add information about the sensitivity and specificity of the criteria, the pre-test probability, and other figures that may help the reader understand how valuable the criteria are clinically.
{{Family tree| | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|.| | | | | |}}
* [Disease name] is mainly diagnosed based on clinical presentation. There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].
{{Family tree| | | | | I01 | | | I02 | | | I03 | | | I04 | | | | | | I05 | | | | |I01=↑ [[PTHrP]]|I02=↑ [[1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D]]|I03=↑ [[25-hydroxy vitamin D]]|I04=↓ [[1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D]]|I05=Normal [[PTHrP]] and [[vitamin D]] metabolites}}
* There is no single diagnostic study of choice for [disease name], though [disease name] may be diagnosed based on [name of criteria] established by [...].
{{Family tree| | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | | |!| | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| |}}
 
{{Family tree| | | | | J01 | | | J02 | | | J03 | | | J04 | | J05 | | J06 | | J07 |J01=Humoral [[hypercalcemia]] of [[malignancy]]|J02=[[Chest X-ray]], [[ACE]] levels|J03=[[Hypervitaminosis D]]|J04=History of high milk intake,<br>excess [[calcium]] intake for treating [[osteoporosis]] or [[dyspepsia]]|J05=[[Serum protein electrophoresis]]|J06=[[Mammography]]|J07=Check medications}}
* The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].
{{Family tree| | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| |}}
* The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
{{Family tree| | | | | K01 | | | K02 | | | | | | | | K03 | | K04 | | K05 | | |!| |K01=Check for [[malignancies]]|K02=Bilateral hilar [[lymphadenopathy]], ↑ [[ACE]] levels|K03=[[Milk-alkali syndrome]]|K04=[[Multiple myeloma]]|K05=[[Breast cancer]]}}
 
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|^|.| | |}}
* [Disease name] may be diagnosed at any time if one or more of the following criteria are met:
{{Family tree| | | | | | | | | | L01 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |L02 | | | | L03 | |L01=[[Sarcoidosis]]|L02=[[Lithium]] induced hypercalcemia|L03=[[Thiazide diuretic]] induced hypercalcemia}}
** Criteria 1
{{Family tree/end}}
** Criteria 2
<br><br>
** Criteria 3
 
IF there are clear, established diagnostic criteria:
*The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].
*The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which include [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
*The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [definition name] definition, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
IF there are no established diagnostic criteria: 
*There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].




Latest revision as of 20:40, 5 July 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anmol Pitliya, M.B.B.S. M.D.[2]

Overview

Serum calcium levels is the study of choice for the diagnosis of hypercalcemia. However, a panel of tests may be required to reach the underlying cause of hypercalcemia.

Diagnostic Study of Choice

Study of choice

  • Serum calcium levels is the study of choice for the diagnosis of hypercalcemia.
  • However, a panel of tests may be required to reach the underlying cause of hypercalcemia.

Diagnostic Approach



 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Hypercalcemia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Repeat (Check ionized calcium or calcium corrected for albumin)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Hypercalcemia confirmed
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Measure intact parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
↑ PTH
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mildly ↑ PTH
 
 
 
 
 
 
↓ PTH
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Hyperparathyroidism
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Urinary calcium creatinine ratio
 
 
 
 
 
 
Measure parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) and vitamin D metabolites
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
↑ serum phosphate
History of renal transplantation
 
 
 
↓/Normal phosphate levels
 
↑ Urinary calcium creatinine ratio
 
 
 
↓ Urinary calcium creatinine ratio
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
 
 
 
 
 
Primary hyperparathyroidism
 
 
 
 
 
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
↑ PTHrP
 
 
↑ 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D
 
 
↑ 25-hydroxy vitamin D
 
 
↓ 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D
 
 
 
 
 
Normal PTHrP and vitamin D metabolites
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy
 
 
Chest X-ray, ACE levels
 
 
Hypervitaminosis D
 
 
History of high milk intake,
excess calcium intake for treating osteoporosis or dyspepsia
 
Serum protein electrophoresis
 
Mammography
 
Check medications
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Check for malignancies
 
 
Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy, ↑ ACE levels
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Milk-alkali syndrome
 
Multiple myeloma
 
Breast cancer
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sarcoidosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Lithium induced hypercalcemia
 
 
 
Thiazide diuretic induced hypercalcemia
 




References

  1. ↑ Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT, Brandi ML, Clarke BL, Shoback D, Jüppner H, D'Amour P, Fox J, Rejnmark L, Mosekilde L, Rubin MR, Dempster D, Gafni R, Collins MT, Sliney J, Sanders J (2011). "Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research". J. Bone Miner. Res. 26 (10): 2317–37. doi:10.1002/jbmr.483. PMC 3405491. PMID 21812031.
  2. ↑ Silverberg SJ, Bilezikian JP (1996). "Evaluation and management of primary hyperparathyroidism". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 81 (6): 2036–40. doi:10.1210/jcem.81.6.8964825. PMID 8964825.
  3. ↑ Marx SJ, Spiegel AM, Brown EM, Koehler JO, Gardner DG, Brennan MF, Aurbach GD (1978). "Divalent cation metabolism. Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia versus typical primary hyperparathyroidism". Am. J. Med. 6http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0002934378908148?via%3Dihub5 (2): 235–42. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(78)90814-8. PMID 686009.
  4. ↑ Shoback D (2008). "Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism". N. Engl. J. Med. 359 (4): 391–403. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp0803050. PMID 18650515.
  5. ↑ Yamamoto M, Akatsu T, Nagase T, Ogata E (2000). "Comparison of hypocalcemic hypercalciuria between patients with idiopathic hypoparathyroidism and those with gain-of-function mutations in the calcium-sensing receptor: is it possible to differentiate the two disorders?". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85 (12): 4583–91. doi:10.1210/jcem.85.12.7035. PMID 11134112.
  6. ↑ Marx SJ, Stock JL, Attie MF, Downs RW, Gardner DG, Brown EM, Spiegel AM, Doppman JL, Brennan MF (1980). "Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia: recognition among patients referred after unsuccessful parathyroid exploration". Ann. Intern. Med. 92 (3): 351–6. PMID 7356229.
  7. ↑ Mirrakhimov AE (2015). "Hypercalcemia of Malignancy: An Update on Pathogenesis and Management". N Am J Med Sci. 7 (11): 483–93. doi:10.4103/1947-2714.170600. PMC 4683803. PMID 26713296.
  8. ↑ Ratcliffe WA, Hutchesson AC, Bundred NJ, Ratcliffe JG (1992). "Role of assays for parathyroid-hormone-related protein in investigation of hypercalcaemia". Lancet. 339 (8786): 164–7. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)90220-W. PMID 1346019.
  9. ↑ Ikeda K, Ohno H, Hane M, Yokoi H, Okada M, Honma T, Yamada A, Tatsumi Y, Tanaka T, Saitoh T (1994). "Development of a sensitive two-site immunoradiometric assay for parathyroid hormone-related peptide: evidence for elevated levels in plasma from patients with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and B-cell lymphoma". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 79 (5): 1322–7. doi:10.1210/jcem.79.5.7962324. PMID 7962324.
  10. ↑ Horwitz MJ, Tedesco MB, Sereika SM, Hollis BW, Garcia-Ocaña A, Stewart AF (2003). "Direct comparison of sustained infusion of human parathyroid hormone-related protein-(1-36) [hPTHrP-(1-36)] versus hPTH-(1-34) on serum calcium, plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and fractional calcium excretion in healthy human volunteers". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88 (4): 1603–9. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020773. PMID 12679445.
  11. ↑ Mallette LE, Khouri K, Zengotita H, Hollis BW, Malini S (1989). "Lithium treatment increases intact and midregion parathyroid hormone and parathyroid volume". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 68 (3): 654–60. doi:10.1210/jcem-68-3-654. PMID 2918061.
  12. ↑ Jacobus CH, Holick MF, Shao Q, Chen TC, Holm IA, Kolodny JM, Fuleihan GE, Seely EW (1992). "Hypervitaminosis D associated with drinking milk". N. Engl. J. Med. 326 (18): 1173–7. doi:10.1056/NEJM199204303261801. PMID 1313547.
  13. ↑ Hoeck HC, Laurberg G, Laurberg P (1994). "Hypercalcaemic crisis after excessive topical use of a vitamin D derivative". J. Intern. Med. 235 (3): 281–2. PMID 8120527.
  14. ↑ Dusso AS, Kamimura S, Gallieni M, Zhong M, Negrea L, Shapiro S, Slatopolsky E (1997). "gamma-Interferon-induced resistance to 1,25-(OH)2 D3 in human monocytes and macrophages: a mechanism for the hypercalcemia of various granulomatoses". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82 (7): 2222–32. doi:10.1210/jcem.82.7.4074. PMID 9215298.

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