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==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
The global prevalence of refractive errors has been estimated from 800 million to 2.3 billion.<ref>Dunaway D, Berger I.[http://www.infocusonline.org/WORLDWIDE%20DISTRIBUTION%20OF%20VISUAL%20REFRACTIVE%20ERROR1.doc "Worldwide Distribution of Visual Refractive Errors and What to Expect at a Particular Location."] Retrieved August 31,2006.</ref> The incidence of myopia within sampled population often varies with [[age]], country, [[sex]], [[race]],[[ethnicity]], occupation, environment, and other factors.<ref name="Verma"/><ref name="Fredrick">Fredrick DR. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/324/7347/1195#B15"Myopia."] ''BMJ.'' 2002 May 18;324(7347):1195-9. PMID 12016188.</ref> Variability in testing and data collection methods makes comparisons of prevalence and progression difficult.<ref>National Research Council Commission. [http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309040817/html "Myopia: Prevalence and Progression."] Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1989. ISBN 0-309-04081-7</ref>
The global prevalence of refractive errors has been estimated from 800 million to 2.3 billion.<ref>Dunaway D, Berger I.[http://www.infocusonline.org/WORLDWIDE%20DISTRIBUTION%20OF%20VISUAL%20REFRACTIVE%20ERROR1.doc "Worldwide Distribution of Visual Refractive Errors and What to Expect at a Particular Location."] Retrieved August 31,2006.</ref>  


In some areas, such as [[Japan]], [[Singapore]] and  [[Taiwan]], up to 44% of the adult population is myopic.
The incidence of myopia within sampled population often varies with [[age]], country, [[sex]], [[race]],[[ethnicity]], occupation, environment, and other factors.<ref name="Fredrick">Fredrick DR. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/324/7347/1195#B15"Myopia."] ''BMJ.'' 2002 May 18;324(7347):1195-9. PMID 12016188.</ref> Variability in testing and data collection methods makes comparisons of prevalence and progression difficult.<ref>National Research Council Commission. [http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309040817/html "Myopia: Prevalence and Progression."] Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1989. ISBN 0-309-04081-7</ref>


A recent study involving first-year undergraduate students in the United Kingdom found that 50% of [[United Kingdom|British]] whites and 53.4% of British Asians were myopic.<ref>Logan NS, Davies LN, Mallen EA, Gilmartin B. Ametropia and ocular biometry in a UK university student population. Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):261-6. PMID 15829853.</ref>
*In some areas, such as [[Japan]], [[Singapore]] and [[Taiwan]], up to 44% of the adult population is myopic.


In [[Australia]], the overall prevalence of myopia (worse than −0.50 diopters) has been estimated to be 17%.<ref>Wensor M, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 May;117(5):658-63. PMID 10326965.</ref> In one recent study, less than 1 in 10 (8.4%) Australian children between the ages of 4 and 12 were found to have myopia greater than −0.50 diopters.<ref>Junghans BM, Crewther SG. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15705207 "Little evidence for an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children over the last 30 years."] ''BMC Ophthalmol.'' 2005 Feb 11;5(1):1. PMID 15705207.</ref> A recent review found that 16.4% of Australians aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 2.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>
*A recent study involving first-year undergraduate students in the United Kingdom found that 50% of [[United Kingdom|British]] whites and 53.4% of British Asians were myopic.<ref>Logan NS, Davies LN, Mallen EA, Gilmartin B. Ametropia and ocular biometry in a UK university student population. Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):261-6. PMID 15829853.</ref>


In [[Brazil]], a 2005 study estimated that 6.4% of Brazilians between the ages of 12 and 59 had −1.00 diopter or myopia or more, compared with 2.7% of the indigenous people in northwestern Brazil.<ref>Thorn F, Cruz AA, Machado AJ, Carvalho RA. "Refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern Amazon region of Brazil." ''Optom Vis Sci.'' 2005 Apr;82(4):267-72. PMID 15829854.</ref> Another found nearly 1 in 8 (13.3%) of the students in one city were myopic.<ref>Garcia CA, Orefice F, Nobre GF, Souza Dde B, Rocha ML, Vianna RN. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27492005000300009&tlng=en&lng=en&nrm=iso "Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil."] ''Arq Bras Oftalmol.'' 2005 May-Jun;68(3):321-5. Epub 2005 Jul 26. PMID 16059562.</ref>
*In [[Australia]], the overall prevalence of myopia (worse than −0.50 diopters) has been estimated to be 17%.<ref>Wensor M, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 May;117(5):658-63. PMID 10326965.</ref> In one recent study, less than 1 in 10 (8.4%) Australian children between the ages of 4 and 12 were found to have myopia greater than −0.50 diopters.<ref>Junghans BM, Crewther SG. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15705207 "Little evidence for an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children over the last 30 years."] ''BMC Ophthalmol.'' 2005 Feb 11;5(1):1. PMID 15705207.</ref> A recent review found that 16.4% of Australians aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 2.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>


In [[Greece]], the prevalence of myopia among 15 to 18 year old students was found to be 36.8%.<ref name="Mavracanas">Mavracanas TA, Mandalos A, Peios D, Golias V, Megalou K, Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Katsougiannopoulos B. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078006656.x#search=%22myopia%2C%20prevalence%22"Prevalence of myopia in a sample of Greek students."] ''Acta Ophthalmol Scand.'' 2000 Dec;78(6):656-9. PMID 11167226.</ref>
*In [[Brazil]], a 2005 study estimated that 6.4% of Brazilians between the ages of 12 and 59 had −1.00 diopter or myopia or more, compared with 2.7% of the indigenous people in northwestern Brazil.<ref>Thorn F, Cruz AA, Machado AJ, Carvalho RA. "Refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern Amazon region of Brazil." ''Optom Vis Sci.'' 2005 Apr;82(4):267-72. PMID 15829854.</ref> Another found nearly 1 in 8 (13.3%) of the students in one city were myopic.<ref>Garcia CA, Orefice F, Nobre GF, Souza Dde B, Rocha ML, Vianna RN. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27492005000300009&tlng=en&lng=en&nrm=iso "Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil."] ''Arq Bras Oftalmol.'' 2005 May-Jun;68(3):321-5. Epub 2005 Jul 26. PMID 16059562.</ref>


In [[India]], the prevalence of myopia in the general population has been reported to be only 6.9%.<ref>Mohan M, Pakrasi S, Zutshi R. "Myopia in India." ''Acta Ophthalmol Suppl.'' 1988;185:19-23. PMID 2853533.</ref><ref name="Mavracanas"/>
*In [[Greece]], the prevalence of myopia among 15 to 18 year old students was found to be 36.8%.<ref name="Mavracanas">Mavracanas TA, Mandalos A, Peios D, Golias V, Megalou K, Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Katsougiannopoulos B. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078006656.x#search=%22myopia%2C%20prevalence%22"Prevalence of myopia in a sample of Greek students."] ''Acta Ophthalmol Scand.'' 2000 Dec;78(6):656-9. PMID 11167226.</ref>


A recent review found that 26.6% of Western Europeans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.6% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>
*In [[India]], the prevalence of myopia in the general population has been reported to be only 6.9%.<ref>Mohan M, Pakrasi S, Zutshi R. "Myopia in India." ''Acta Ophthalmol Suppl.'' 1988;185:19-23. PMID 2853533.</ref><ref name="Mavracanas"/>


In the [[United States]], the prevalence of myopia has been estimated at 20%.<ref name="Verma"/> Nearly 1 in 10 (9.2%) American children between the ages of 5 and 17 have myopia.<ref>Kleinstein RN, Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K; Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error Study Group. [http://archopht.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/8/1141 "Refractive error and ethnicity in children."] ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2003 Aug;121(8):1141-7. PMID 12912692.</ref> Approximately 25% of Americans between the ages of 12 and 54 have the condition.<ref name="Sperduto">Sperduto RD, Seigel D, Roberts J, Rowland M. "Prevalence of myopia in the United States." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 1983 Mar;101(3):405-7. PMID 6830491.</ref> A recent review found that 25.4% of Americans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia."''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>
*A recent review found that 26.6% of Western Europeans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.6% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>


A study of Jordanian adults aged 17 to 40 found that over half (53.7%) were myopic.<ref>Mallen EA, Gammoh Y, Al-Bdour M, Sayegh FN. "Refractive error and ocular biometry in Jordanian adults." ''Ophthalmic Physiol Opt.'' 2005 Jul;25(4):302-9. PMID 15953114.</ref>
*In the [[United States]], the prevalence of myopia has been estimated at 20%. Nearly 1 in 10 (9.2%) American children between the ages of 5 and 17 have myopia.<ref>Kleinstein RN, Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K; Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error Study Group. [http://archopht.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/8/1141 "Refractive error and ethnicity in children."] ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2003 Aug;121(8):1141-7. PMID 12912692.</ref> Approximately 25% of Americans between the ages of 12 and 54 have the condition.<ref name="Sperduto">Sperduto RD, Seigel D, Roberts J, Rowland M. "Prevalence of myopia in the United States." ''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 1983 Mar;101(3):405-7. PMID 6830491.</ref> A recent review found that 25.4% of Americans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.<ref>Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia."''Arch Ophthalmol.'' 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.</ref>


===Ethnicity and race===
*A study of Jordanian adults aged 17 to 40 found that over half (53.7%) were myopic.<ref>Mallen EA, Gammoh Y, Al-Bdour M, Sayegh FN. "Refractive error and ocular biometry in Jordanian adults." ''Ophthalmic Physiol Opt.'' 2005 Jul;25(4):302-9. PMID 15953114.</ref>
The prevalence of myopia in has been reported as high as 70-90% in some [[Asia]]n countries. 30-40% in Europe and the United States, and 10-20% in Africa.<ref name="Fredrick"/>


Myopia is less common in [[Black people|black]], [[Nubian]]s, and [[Sudanese]] people.<ref name="Verma"/> In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect whites less than blacks.<ref name="Sperduto"/>. Asians had the highest prevalence (18.5%), followed by Hispanics (13.2%). Whites had the lowest prevalence of myopia (4.4%), which was not significantly different from African Americans (6.6%). For hyperopia, whites had the highest prevalence (19.3%), followed by Hispanics (12.7%). Asians had the lowest prevalence of hyperopia (6.3%) and were not significantly different from African Americans (6.4%). For [[astigmatism]], Asians and Hispanics had the highest prevalences (33.6% and 36.9%, respectively) and did not differ from each other ([[P-value|P]] = .17). African Americans had the lowest prevalence of astigmatism (20.0%), followed by whites (26.4%)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kleinstein|first=RN|coauthors=Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K|title=Refractive error and ethnicity in children |journal=Arch. Ophthalmol. |volume=121 |issue=8 |pages=1141–1147 |year=2003 |pmid=12912692|doi=10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141}}</ref>.
===Race===
*The prevalence of myopia in has been reported as high as 70-90% in some [[Asia]]n countries, 30-40% in Europe and the United States and 10-20% in Africa.<ref name="Fredrick"/>
*Myopia is less common in [[Black people|black]], [[Nubian]]s, and [[Sudanese]] people.
*In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect whites less than blacks.<ref name="Sperduto"/>. Asians had the highest prevalence (18.5%), followed by Hispanics (13.2%). Whites had the lowest prevalence of myopia (4.4%), which was not significantly different from African Americans (6.6%).
*For hyperopia, whites had the highest prevalence (19.3%), followed by Hispanics (12.7%). Asians had the lowest prevalence of hyperopia (6.3%) and were not significantly different from African Americans (6.4%).
*For [[astigmatism]], Asians and Hispanics had the highest prevalences (33.6% and 36.9%, respectively) and did not differ from each other ([[P-value|P]] = .17). African Americans had the lowest prevalence of astigmatism (20.0%), followed by whites (26.4%)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kleinstein|first=RN|coauthors=Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K|title=Refractive error and ethnicity in children |journal=Arch. Ophthalmol. |volume=121 |issue=8 |pages=1141–1147 |year=2003 |pmid=12912692|doi=10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141}}</ref>.


===Education, intelligence, and IQ===
===Education, Intelligence, and IQ===
A number of studies have shown that the prevalence of myopia increases with level of education <ref name="Sperduto"/><ref name="Mavracanas"/> and many studies have shown a relationship between myopia and [[IQ]]. However, care must be taken in interpreting these results as [[correlation does not imply causation]].
A number of studies have shown that the prevalence of myopia increases with level of education <ref name="Sperduto"/><ref name="Mavracanas"/> and many studies have shown a relationship between myopia and [[IQ]]. However, care must be taken in interpreting these results as [[correlation does not imply causation]]. According to [[Arthur Jensen]], myopes average 7-8 IQ points higher than non-myopes.  The relationship also holds within families, and siblings with a higher degree of [[refraction error]] average higher IQs than siblings with less refraction error. Jensen believes that this indicates myopia and IQ are [[pleiotropic|pleiotropically]] related as they are caused or influenced by the same genes. The mechanism that has caused a relationship between myopia and IQ is not yet known with certainty.
 
According to [[Arthur Jensen]], myopes average 7-8 IQ points higher than non-myopes.  The relationship also holds within families, and siblings with a higher degree of[[refraction error]] average higher IQs than siblings with less refraction error. Jensen believes that this indicates myopia and IQ are [[pleiotropic|pleiotropically]]related as they are caused or influenced by the same genes. The mechanism that has caused a relationship between myopia and IQ is not yet known with certainty.


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Latest revision as of 22:52, 29 July 2020

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Saumya Easaw, M.B.B.S.[3]

Epidemiology and Demographics

The global prevalence of refractive errors has been estimated from 800 million to 2.3 billion.[1]

The incidence of myopia within sampled population often varies with age, country, sex, race,ethnicity, occupation, environment, and other factors.[2] Variability in testing and data collection methods makes comparisons of prevalence and progression difficult.[3]

  • A recent study involving first-year undergraduate students in the United Kingdom found that 50% of British whites and 53.4% of British Asians were myopic.[4]
  • In Australia, the overall prevalence of myopia (worse than −0.50 diopters) has been estimated to be 17%.[5] In one recent study, less than 1 in 10 (8.4%) Australian children between the ages of 4 and 12 were found to have myopia greater than −0.50 diopters.[6] A recent review found that 16.4% of Australians aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 2.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.[7]
  • In Brazil, a 2005 study estimated that 6.4% of Brazilians between the ages of 12 and 59 had −1.00 diopter or myopia or more, compared with 2.7% of the indigenous people in northwestern Brazil.[8] Another found nearly 1 in 8 (13.3%) of the students in one city were myopic.[9]
  • In Greece, the prevalence of myopia among 15 to 18 year old students was found to be 36.8%.[10]
  • In India, the prevalence of myopia in the general population has been reported to be only 6.9%.[11][10]
  • A recent review found that 26.6% of Western Europeans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.6% have at least −5.00 diopters.[12]
  • In the United States, the prevalence of myopia has been estimated at 20%. Nearly 1 in 10 (9.2%) American children between the ages of 5 and 17 have myopia.[13] Approximately 25% of Americans between the ages of 12 and 54 have the condition.[14] A recent review found that 25.4% of Americans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 4.5% have at least −5.00 diopters.[15]
  • A study of Jordanian adults aged 17 to 40 found that over half (53.7%) were myopic.[16]

Race

  • The prevalence of myopia in has been reported as high as 70-90% in some Asian countries, 30-40% in Europe and the United States and 10-20% in Africa.[2]
  • Myopia is less common in black, Nubians, and Sudanese people.
  • In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect whites less than blacks.[14]. Asians had the highest prevalence (18.5%), followed by Hispanics (13.2%). Whites had the lowest prevalence of myopia (4.4%), which was not significantly different from African Americans (6.6%).
  • For hyperopia, whites had the highest prevalence (19.3%), followed by Hispanics (12.7%). Asians had the lowest prevalence of hyperopia (6.3%) and were not significantly different from African Americans (6.4%).
  • For astigmatism, Asians and Hispanics had the highest prevalences (33.6% and 36.9%, respectively) and did not differ from each other (P = .17). African Americans had the lowest prevalence of astigmatism (20.0%), followed by whites (26.4%)[17].

Education, Intelligence, and IQ

A number of studies have shown that the prevalence of myopia increases with level of education [14][10] and many studies have shown a relationship between myopia and IQ. However, care must be taken in interpreting these results as correlation does not imply causation. According to Arthur Jensen, myopes average 7-8 IQ points higher than non-myopes. The relationship also holds within families, and siblings with a higher degree of refraction error average higher IQs than siblings with less refraction error. Jensen believes that this indicates myopia and IQ are pleiotropically related as they are caused or influenced by the same genes. The mechanism that has caused a relationship between myopia and IQ is not yet known with certainty.

References

  1. ↑ Dunaway D, Berger I."Worldwide Distribution of Visual Refractive Errors and What to Expect at a Particular Location." Retrieved August 31,2006.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Fredrick DR. "Myopia." BMJ. 2002 May 18;324(7347):1195-9. PMID 12016188.
  3. ↑ National Research Council Commission. "Myopia: Prevalence and Progression." Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1989. ISBN 0-309-04081-7
  4. ↑ Logan NS, Davies LN, Mallen EA, Gilmartin B. Ametropia and ocular biometry in a UK university student population. Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):261-6. PMID 15829853.
  5. ↑ Wensor M, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 May;117(5):658-63. PMID 10326965.
  6. ↑ Junghans BM, Crewther SG. "Little evidence for an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children over the last 30 years." BMC Ophthalmol. 2005 Feb 11;5(1):1. PMID 15705207.
  7. ↑ Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.
  8. ↑ Thorn F, Cruz AA, Machado AJ, Carvalho RA. "Refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern Amazon region of Brazil." Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):267-72. PMID 15829854.
  9. ↑ Garcia CA, Orefice F, Nobre GF, Souza Dde B, Rocha ML, Vianna RN. "Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil." Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2005 May-Jun;68(3):321-5. Epub 2005 Jul 26. PMID 16059562.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mavracanas TA, Mandalos A, Peios D, Golias V, Megalou K, Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Katsougiannopoulos B. "Prevalence of myopia in a sample of Greek students." Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000 Dec;78(6):656-9. PMID 11167226.
  11. ↑ Mohan M, Pakrasi S, Zutshi R. "Myopia in India." Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:19-23. PMID 2853533.
  12. ↑ Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.
  13. ↑ Kleinstein RN, Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K; Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error Study Group. "Refractive error and ethnicity in children." Arch Ophthalmol. 2003 Aug;121(8):1141-7. PMID 12912692.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Sperduto RD, Seigel D, Roberts J, Rowland M. "Prevalence of myopia in the United States." Arch Ophthalmol. 1983 Mar;101(3):405-7. PMID 6830491.
  15. ↑ Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia."Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. PMID 15078666.
  16. ↑ Mallen EA, Gammoh Y, Al-Bdour M, Sayegh FN. "Refractive error and ocular biometry in Jordanian adults." Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2005 Jul;25(4):302-9. PMID 15953114.
  17. ↑ Kleinstein, RN (2003). "Refractive error and ethnicity in children". Arch. Ophthalmol. 121 (8): 1141–1147. doi:10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141. PMID 12912692. Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (help)

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