Leadership: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 02:31, 27 September 2024

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[2]

Leadership is "the function of directing or controlling the actions or attitudes of an individual or group with more or less willing acquiescence of the followers".^[1] It is possible that simply being an opinion leader may be effective^[2].

Leadership styles have been reviewed

Leadership development in health care is perceived as being many years behind that of other industries.^[3]

Leadership affects organizational performance - about 5% to 20% of the variation in profitability is accounted for by leadership^[4].

There is concern about whether the many proposed leadership theories have overlap and redundancies^[5]^[6].

Co-leadership, or dual leaders may be advantageous^[7].

The organization of leaders and managers maybe important for healthcare as diverse backgrounds of leaders are needed^[8]. In this study, physicians integrated into leadership spots was associated with clinical performance.

Leadership vs management

An early description distinguishing leadership and management was by Zaleznik in 1977^[9]. This have more recently discussed by Petriglieri who argues that we have focused too much on leadership^[10].

THe distinction between management and leadership has become blurred, "managerial work has, for example, been replaced by the more appealing label leadership, used to denote any act of a person in a formal authority position"^[11].

A helpful video of recent research on both concepts and the importance of both is available by the Academy of Management^[12]

Informal leadership

Providing a positive voice has benefits:

"employees can help peers get a status boost from voicing, while also raising their own status, by introducing the concept of amplification"^[13]

Evidence-based management

A gap between what research shows and managers practice has been noted^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17].

Evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been advocated to improve management practices^[18] and measurement^[19]. This is based on the success of evidence-based medicine and has been called the management-as-medicine motif (MAMM)^[20]. Concern about the approach of EBMgt has been based on a Cochrane Collaboration review of nursing turnover^[21] that focused only on randomized data^[20].

Concerns exists about how well MBA programs^[22], bridge and practitioner journals^[23], and textbooks^[24] teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners^[25].

Alternative approaches to education have been suggested^[26].

The "push, pull, process" approach has been advocated and refers to publishing and disseminating quality research (push), managers learning all to retrieve new research findings after they finish formal education (pull), and systematically assessing publications (process)^[27].

Systematic reviews have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.^[28]

Reporting standards have been proposed^[29].

Registration of studies before data collection has been advocated^[30].

Barriers within leaders

Management students in Australia view evidence-based management (EBMgt) in one of 4 ways^[31]:

EBMgt as an unrealistic way of doing management. 12% or respondents
EBMgt as a way of doing management in particular situations. 34% or respondents
EBMgt as a generally useful way of doing management. 45% or respondents
EBMgt as an ideal way of being a manager. 9% or respondents

The leadership knowing-doing gap may be affected by "motivation, prioritization, and confidence to enact leadership"^[32].

Selection and development of leaders

Individuals with promotive voices rather than a prohibitive voice are more likely to become leaders, especially if they are male^[33].

One study has validated the Peter Principle^[34].

"Emergent leaders showed a higher amount of active gestures and less passive facial expressions than non-leaders" according to eye-tracking studies of teams.^[35]

"Extraversion predicts leadership emergence" but extraversion may be harmful in a proactive workforce^[36].

Self-selection reasons

Leaders may choose their path for career, self-centered, 'me'^[37], or mercenary reasons - as opposed to mission-driven reasons.

Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary biology may partly explain selection of leaders^[38].

Charisma

Team leaders may be chosen by taller, louder, or more confident rather than competence^[39].

Gender

Women may make group decision making more effective^[40] and be inclined to more effective leadership styles^[41].

Opt-in process for leadership selection may lead to less women leaders^[42]. Women are less likely to self-promote in their self-assesments^[43]^[44]

Personality traits

Among the following 'Big five' personality traits^[45]:

Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism

Narcissism may be selected for.^[46]^[47]

Dunning-Kruger effect

The selection for narcissism may be related to the Dunning-Kruger effect which has been noted to occur in the self-assessment of leadership skills.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52] The overconfidence of some individuals may be viewed as competence by other individuals^[53] .

Aphorisms about selection of leaders:

Peter Principle
Dilbert Principle

Core-self evaluation

Core-self evaluation includes^[54]:

Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Emotional stability (low neuroticism)

Hypercore self‐evaluation has a positive effect on innovation behavior by leaders; however, selfism and overconfidence has a negative effect^[55].

Low managerial self-efficacy and ego defensivism makes managers less likely to solict employee voice, positively evaluate an employee who speaks up, and reduced implementation of employee voice^[56].

Humility

The harm of narcissism in leaders may be mitigated by humility^[57] Humility, predicted by self-expansion theory, has been found to increase self-expansion and self-efficacy of followers^[58]. However, humility may not be effective in teams that expect a high power distance or expect dominating leaders.^[59]

Humility in leaders may be effective when teams have proactive personalities^[60].

Masters in Business Administration

CEOs with a MBA may^[61]^[62] or may not^[63] underperform other CEOs due to emphasizing short-term business outcomes^[64] or personal gain^[65] rather than sustainability.^[66]

It is not clear that the curricula in masters programs reflect best research^[67].

Leadership training

Leadership training can be effective^[68].

In academic health center], the effect of leadership training may be more to the benefit to advancement of the trainee that to improvement of the institution^[69].

The self-esteeem and mindset of the trainee may determine whether the trainee focuses improvement on self versus organization^[70].

Leadership training in healthcare may be more effective if taught in conjunction with institutional projects^[71].

Leadership styles related to worksite climate

Leadership research is complicated by construct proliferation and construct redundancy^[6]

Leadership style affects work climate.

Leadership styles in health care may affect institutional finances, specifically operating margins.^[72]

Early categorization of leadership styles was by Lewin in 1938 who labeled styles as autocratic, democratic.^[73]

The terms transactional and transformation were introduced by Weber in 1947.^[74] Weber said the charismatic leader was a transformer and the bureaucratic leader was transactional.

Similar concepts are Theory X and Theory Y management by Douglas McGregor in 1960^[75]. Theory X is transactional and Theory Y is transformational.

The concept of transactional versus transformation leadership was using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) first proposed by Bass in 1978.^[76]

Measurement of transactional versus transformation leadership using the was first proposed by Bass in 1985.^[77]

Bass added the concept of laissez-faire leadership in 1997.^[78]^[79]

Leadership styles may effect burnout of employees who are physicians^[80] and non-physicians^[81] as well the burnout of the leaders themselves.^[82]^[83].

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire may be the most common of the destructive leadership patterns^[84].

Laissez-faire, in health care, is associated with low subordinate job satisfaction and effort.^[85] In other industries, laissez-faire is also associated with reduced team performance^[86].

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap.^[87]

Transactional

The transactional style may have arose from early views of leadership:

Adam Smith wrote about the worker, “It is the interest of every man to live as much at his ease as he can”.
Frederick Taylor later added that the worker “is so stupid that the word ‘percentage’ has no meaning to him, and he must consequently be trained by a man more intelligent than himself.”

Transactional leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits^[88]:

Agreeableness
Extraversion
Openness (insignificant)
Conscientiousness (insignificant)
Neuroticism (negative association)

When converting from transactional to empowering leadership, teams may transiently function more slowly.^[89]

Management by exception: active

Management by exception: passive

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap and management by passive exception may be within laissez-faire.^[87]

Outcomes of transactional leadership

Transactional leadership tactics were found by a meta-analysis in 2004 to positively and significantly affect the following compared to transformational leadership^[90]:

Transformational leadership had a higher validity than did contingent reward: follower satisfaction with leader and leader effectiveness
Contingent reward had significantly higher validity: follower job satisfaction and leader job performance

Other studies have found benefit from transactional leadership^[91]

Transactional leadership, if leading to zero-sum assessments by employees, can be problematic^[92].

Transformational

Transformational leadership has the following dimensions (4 I's), the first two, Idealised Influence and Inspirational Motivation, when combined are charisma:

Idealized Influence (role modeling).
- Attributed: “My supervisor acts in ways that build my respect”^[93] Note that Aviolo found that "displays power and confidence" was the lowest loading factor for charisma^[94].
- Behavior: "talks enthusiastically"^[94], “My supervisor talks to us about his/her most important values and beliefs”^[93]
Inspirational Motivation, “My supervisor expresses his/her confidence that we will achieve our goals”^[93]. Motivation may be better provided by beneficiaries of a company's services rather than the company's leadership^[95].
Individualized Consideration (of followers), "focuses your strengths"^[94], “My supervisor spends time teaching and coaching me”^[93]
Intellectual Stimulation. "suggests different angles"^[94], “My supervisor seeks differing perspectives when solving problems”^[93]

Teaching charisma, Idealised Influence and Inspirational Motivation, has been studied^[96].

Transformational leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits^[88]:

Extraversion (strongest)
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Neuroticism (negative association)

Authentic leadership and ethical leadership may actually be tranformational leadership^[6].

This style may be the most effective in healthcare on employee responses and clinical outcomes.^[97]

Transformational leadership may increase employee thriving and decrease burnout.^[98]

Transformational style may better promote team learning behaviors than a transactional style.^[99]

Compared to transformational leadership, in transformational leadership the leader's focus is on the employees rather than the organization.^[100]

Transformational leadership may build on transactional leadership, "for transformational leadership to be effective,the leader must first build trust and follower responsiveness on the basis of tangible, transactional processes perceived as fair."^[85]

Transformational leadership may cause leader emotional exhaustion and subsequent leader turnover intentions, especially when followers are low in conscientiousness or competence^[101].

Measurement

Transformational leadership can be measured with the proprietary Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) ^[102] or other instruments^[103].

Enabling or Empowering leadership

Enabling leadership attempts to bridge the needs to innovate and to produce^[104]^[105]^[106]. Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory^[107].

Empowering leadership is defined variably^[108]^[109]^[110] but includes:

Autonomy support^[111]. Autonomy adds to mastery.^[111] Perceived autonomy is associated with less burnout.^[112]

A more detailed summary is proposed by Spreitzer^[104]:

The First Discipline: Empower the Person Who Matters Most
The Second Discipline: Continuous Vision and Challenge
The Third Discipline: Continuous Support and Security
The Fourth Discipline: Continuous Openness and Trust
The Fifth Discipline: Continuous Guidance and Control

Similar concepts are^[113]:

Gardener leadership, earlier proposed by Fierz^[114] and later detailed by McChrstal^[115]
Servant leadership^[116]^[117] Servant leadership may promote thriving^[118].
- Employee perception of servant leadership and the factors of self-determination theory are more likely to have extra-role behavior^[119].
- Covey describes the four roles of leadership—modeling, pathfinding, alignment, and empowerment—^[120]
- Spears described the 10 characteristics of servant-leaders as" Listening, Empathy, Awareness, Healing, Foresight, Persuasion, Conceptualization, Stewardship, Community Building, and Commitment to People's Development ^[121]

Types of leadership that focus on giving employees decision-making but may not include giving employees information to guide their decision-making.
- Shared Leadership^[122]^[123]
- Distributed leadership
- Servant leadership
- Participative Leadership^[124]
- Democratic leadership

Empowering leadership may be compatible with AGILE development, which may conflict with command and control leadership^[125].

The World Health Organization recommends participatory leadership as one of 4 reforms needed for primary health care, “leadership reforms need to steer away from either ‘command and control’ or ‘laissez-faire disengagement’ towards a participatory style”^[126]

In health care administration, physician leaders have difficulty relinquishing control and feel threatened by empowering others^[127].

Impact

Shared leadership may improve team performance according to a meta-analysis of 42 studies^[128].

Empowering leadership may improve performnce^[129]^[130]^[108]^[131]

Empowering leadership is consistent with the principle of subsidiarity^[132].

"Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them."^[133]

Measuring empowerment

Multiple instruments are available^[134].

The Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) has been proposed to measure this style.^[135] The ELQ measures either categories:

Coaching
Informing. Examination of the 6 questions in this scale suggest informing here does not fit with information sharing as proposed by complexity science.
Leading By Example
Showing Concern/Interacting with the Team
Participative Decision-Making

Servant leadership can be measure with a 28-item or an abbreviated 7-item servant leadership scale^[136]:

My manager can tell if something work-related is going wrong
My manager makes my career development a priority
I would seek help from my manager if I had a personal problem
My manager emphasizes the importance of giving back to the community
My manager puts my best interests ahead of his/her own
My manager gives me the freedom to handle difficult situations in the way that I feel is best
My manager would NOT compromise ethical principles in order to achieve success

Benefits

Empowering leadership is associated with:

Performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity according to a meta-analysis as compared transformational leadership and leader–member exchange^[137]
Creativity and innovative behavior (ρ = .36), contextual performance (ρ = .33), withdrawal behaviors (ρ = .28), and job performance (ρ = .25) according to a meta-analysis.^[138]
Increased employee intrinsic motivation and creativity^[139]
Increased productivity by implementing Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) as compared to initiating operational improvements^[140]
Increased knowledge sharing and team efficacy which led to increased performance.^[141]
Increases work engagement via work meaningfulness^[142] or empowering leadership has been proposed for healthcare.^[143]^[144]^[145]

Servant leadership behavior may be more effective than narcissism^[146] and a serving culture is positively related both to restaurant performance and employee job performance^[147].

Harm

Servant leadership may be costly to the leader^[148]

Two contradictory faces of empowerment are ^[149]:

Enabling
Burdening

Contingency or situational theories

In this approach, the role of the leader is contingent on the situation.

This includes:

Tannenbaurm's and Schmidt's continuum introduced in 1958^[150]^[151]
Hersey's and Blanchard's situational leadership in 1969.^[152]
Vroon and Yetton's contingency model in 1973^[153]
Heifetz's Adaptive leadership introduced in 1997^[154]

Modulators of impact of leadership styles

Characteristics of subordinates

Goal diversity of subordinates moderator relative effectiveness of leadership styles, "low authority differentiation is beneficial for teams homogeneous in goal orientations and detrimental for teams diverse in goal orientations."^[155] Regulatory fit theory has found^[156]:

Subordinates high in locomotion prefer leaders who have "'forceful' leadership style, represented by 'coercive', 'legitimate', and 'directive' kinds of strategic influence'
Subordinates high in assessment prefer leaders who have "'advisory' leadership style, represented by 'expert', 'referent', and 'participative' kinds of strategic influence'

Regulatory focus

Regulatory focus theory poses that people vary in their goals^[157]:

Promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains
Prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses

Focus may also predict jealousy and envy^[158].

Core-self evaluation

Core-self evaluation includes^[54]:

Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Emotional stability (low neuroticism)

Hypercore-self evaluation predicts job satisfaction and performance^[54].

Characteristics of leaders

Leaders'encoding processes

Leaders' encoding processes may be important^[159]^[160]:

Mindsets: fixed and growth^[161]^[162]
Goal orientations
Mindsets: deliberative and implemental mindsets
Regulatory focus.

Mindset interventions have been reviewed^[163].

Learning-from-failure / optimism

Leadership change behavior is key for post-failure success. This includes sensemaking and problem formulation and reformulation to fine innovation post-failure^[164].

Leader optimism is associated with performance and citizenship behavior^[165].

Leader humility

Leaders who share criticism of themselves can increase the sense of psychological safety of their workforce^[166].

Sharing personal stories may increase workforce trust in leaders via authenticity and empathy^[167].

Leader narcissism

Leader narcissism may be harmful^[168].

Leader information sharing

In general, leaders do not share enough informatoin^[169].

Leaders' work load

Executive job demands may hinder innovation^[170].

Complexity leadership theory

Complexity leadership theory, as originally described by Uhl-Bien, contains:^[171]

Entrepreneurial leadership for exploration^[172]. Uhl-Bien originally labeled this as adaptive leadership^[171].
Operational leadership for exploitation^[172]. Uhl-Bien originally labeled this as administrative leadership^[171].
Enabling leadership is for "creating, engaging and protecting 'adaptive space' needed to nurture and sustain the adaptability process in organizations" and sits between Entrepreneurial and Operational needs

Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory^[107].

Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for health care organization since early this century.^[173]^[174]

Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for Learning Health Systems^[175].

Complexity leadership has been criticized for explaining organizational behavior rather than managing organizations^[176].

Complexity leadership theory has varying descriptions of the metatheme of leadership (see table).

Leadership metathemes described by complexity leadership and their mapping to Bass and Bass leadership framework
Bass & Bass framework^[177]	Uhl-Bien and Arena, 2018^[105]	Hazy and Pottras, 2018^[178]^[179]
Change leadership	Entrepreneurial leadership (formerly called Administrative leadership^[180])	Generative (information gathering/generative/ functions): "interactions are intended to respond to emerging changes and risks by exploring the ecosystem and creating optionality"
	Enabling leadership (details below^[107])
Task leadership	Operational leadership (formerly called Administrative leadership^[180])	Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions): "interactions are intended to exploit present opportunities to acquire resources in the ecosystem and maximize return on assets"
Relational leadership		Community building

Anderson and McDaniel proposed in 2000 that key leadership tasks are^[173]^[181]:

Relationship building
Loose coupling
Complicating
Diversifying
Sense making (such as positive and negative feedback)
Learning
Improvising
Thinking about the future

A model of of learning based on complexity science has been developed.^[182]

Complexity Leadership Theory, also called Complex systems leadership theory, was proposed in 2006.^[183]^[184]^[185] Based on this theory, Hazy has proposed leadership skills similar to Anderson and McDaniel:^[179]

Generative (information gathering/generative/ functions)
Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions)
Community-building
Information gathering
Information using (such as positive and negative feedback)

Uhl-Bien has proposed that tasks of enabling leadership, which is an outgrowth of complexity leadership are^[107]:

Brokerage - fostering of ideas that are triggered at the intersection of networks
Leveraging Tension
Linking Up - "Creating or energizing network connections that enable information flows, or amplify movements, to feed and fuel emergence."
Tags and Attractors - "Listening for language (messages, stories) and symbols (pictures, objects) that ‘stick’ in a system and attract energy & using them to create tags to amplify and channel emergence"
Simple Rules
Network Closure

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with open book management.

Complexity leadership is consistent with positive deviance^[176].

Complexity Leadership Theory may be seen as an evolution of Heifetz's adaptive leadershi^[105]^[186]

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with knowledge-oriented leadership, which is defined as "an attitude or action, observed or imputed, that prompts the creation, sharing, and utilization of new knowledge in a way that seems to bring a shift in thinking and collective outcomes."^[187]

Implementations

Agile and constructive deviance

Constructive deviations are "ad hoc experiments performed with the intention of achieving some purpose; this idea is distinct from the notion of “positive deviance” which is a post hoc analysis and intervention technique used to identify positively performing subgroups (outliers) in populations facing many of the same challenges"^[188].

Agile coaches are consistent with complexity leadership theory and enabling leadership^[189].

Fractal

Fractal organization is consistent with complexity leadership and includes^[190]^[191]:

Normalization Process Theory (NPT)

The Normalization Process Theory (NPT) addresses the implementation of innovations in complex organizations and is consistent with complexity leadership theory^[192]. NPT has four constructs^[193]

Coherence. "How do people work together to understand and plan the activities that need to be accomplished to put an intervention and its components into practice?"^[193]
Cognitive participation. "How do people work together to create networks of participation and communities of practice around interventions and their components?"^[193]
Collective action. "How do people work together to enact interventions and their components?"^[193]
Reflexive monitoring. "How do people work together to appraise interventions and their components?"^[193]

Positive deviance

Positive deviance is consistent with complexity leadership theory^[176]^[194]^[195] and learning health systems^[196].

Measurement

Complexity Leadership tactics can be measured with 3 concepts^[187]:

Knowledge-oriented Leadership
Knowledge Management Capability (technological, structural, cultural, application, acquisition, sharing)
- Example: cultural (highest loading questions):
  - My organization takes advantage of new knowledge.
  - My organization quickly applies knowledge to critical competitive needs.
  - My organization quickly links sources of knowledge in solving problems.
Open Innovation

Another survey has been proposed and construct validated. The instrument consists of 10 items in 2 scales^[178]. Response format asks frequency that employees observe leadership tactics with Likert responses ranging from 'Never' to an average of daily:

Generative (information gathering). Hazy also describes this as "Resilience Leadership Mode...to address risk (variance) by promoting the value potential of optionality"^[197]
- Supporting difference of opinion
- Providing resources and time to try new things
- Encouraging learning visits to other organizations
- Encouraging new approaches
- Forgiving failure

Administrative (information using). Hazy also describes this as "Effectiveness Leadership Mode...to maximize return (expected value) by driving the potential value of efficient operations"^[197]
- Driving accountability
- Setting objective metrics of success or failure
- Quieting voices which distract from the purpose
- Asking people to invest more time and energy
- Establishing specific targets and deliverables.

Practice Reserve (PAR) can be measured^[198]. Reciprocal learning may be measured^[199].

Compoenents of complexity leadership

Community building / networking / linking up

"Network leaders engage in brokering connections across the network of jazz musicians; or building status through connections to central people," the latter may be more important^[200].

Sensemaking

Sensemaking includes semantic sensemaking^[201].

Persuasion and issue selling

Aristotle's rhetoric can be a framework for persuasion^[202]^[203]^[204] Green proposes^[205]:

"a rhetorical sequence that starts with pathos, moves to logos, and ends with ethos will have a rapid rate of initial adoption, a broad diffusion, and a slow abandonment"
"pathos may initiate change, logos implement it, and ethos sustain it"

Issue selling has been studied by Dutton and Ashford^[206]^[207] and updated by Lu^[208] Lu proposes the use of:

Influence tactics
- Rational persuasion, for example, “Use facts and logic to try to make a persuasive case for your proposed idea”
- Inspirational appeal, for example, “Say your proposed idea is an opportunity to do something really exciting and worthwhile”
- Consultation, for example, “Ask your supervisor to suggest how you could make your idea more helpful to him or her with a task or problem”
- Collaboration, for example, “Offer to provide any assistance the supervisor would need to make the idea happen”
Enactment behaviors
- Drawings: “Illustrate the idea through such means as written descriptions, PowerPoint presentations, drawings, or storyboards”
- Enacting: “Conduct a pilot or simulation to show how the idea could work”
- Prototypes: “Develop a prototype or other sample to demonstrate the value of the idea.”

. .

Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation

(see enabling leadership and complexity leadership above)

Innovation can be classified as^[187]^[209]:

"Inbound OI involves identifying and acquiring knowledge from external sources"
"Outbound OI involves exploitation of a firm’s knowledge and technology through commercialization in the external market"

Organizational cultural influences on innovation has been systematically reviewed^[210]. Cultural attributes include:

Learning culture
Adhocracy culture
Clan rather than hierarchical culture
Low power distance culture

Once tactic to foster innovation is to concentrate on lead users^[211] .

Religion and faith in leadership

The role of religion and faith in leadership is being increasingly explored^[212]^[213].

The Bhagavad Gita may inform positive leadership^[214] , especially verse 2:47.

Religiosity may widen gender pay gaps^[215].

Comparison of leadership approaches

Directive leadership and hierarchy may help in the short run, but harm in the long run^[216]^[217].

Complications of leadership

Power may lead cerebral changes in those given power^[218]. This may lead to hubristic syndrome^[219]

The Earned Dogmatism Effect may lead to close-mindedness^[220].

Employee turnover

Leadership affects employee turnover^[221]

. Rates of employee turnover, especially voluntary turnover, affects organizational performance^[222].

Links

Center for Evidence-Based Management (https://www.cebma.org/ or http://www.evidence-basedmanagement.com/)

References

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-__NOTOC__
 {{CMG}}{{RGB}}
-'''{{PAGENAME}}''' is "the function of directing or controlling the actions or attitudes of an individual or group with more or less willing acquiescence of the followers".<ref>{{MeSH|Leadership }}</ref>
+'''{{PAGENAME}}''' is "the function of directing or controlling the actions or attitudes of an individual or group with more or less willing acquiescence of the followers".<ref>{{MeSH|Leadership }}</ref> It is possible that simply being an opinion leader may be effective<ref name="pmid31232458">{{cite journal| author=Flodgren G, O'Brien MA, Parmelli E, Grimshaw JM| title=Local opinion leaders: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2019 | volume= 6 | issue=  | pages= CD000125 | pmid=31232458 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000125.pub5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31232458  }} </ref>.
+Leadership styles have been reviewed<ref mame="Fischer2023">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Fischer, T.)), ((Sitkin, S. B.)) | journal=Academy of Management Annals | title=Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Assessment and Way Forward | volume=17 | issue=1 | pages=331–372 | date= January 2023 | url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/full/10.5465/annals.2020.0340 | issn=1941-6520, 1941-6067 | doi=10.5465/annals.2020.0340 | access-date=9 July 2023}}
+</ref>
 Leadership development in health care is perceived as being many years behind that of other industries.<ref>McAlearney, Ann Scheck. "Leadership development in healthcare: a qualitative study." Journal of Organizational Behavior 27.7 (2006): 967-982. {{doi|10.1002/job.417}} </ref>
+Leadership affects organizational performance - about 5% to 20% of the variation in profitability is accounted for by leadership<ref>Crossland, C., & Hambrick, D. C. (2007). How national systems differ in their constraints on corporate executives: A study of CEO effects in three countries. Strategic Management Journal, 28(8), 767-789. {{doi|10.1002/smj.610}}</ref>.
+There is concern about whether the many proposed leadership theories have overlap and redundancies<ref name="FischerSitkin2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Fischer | first1 = Thomas | last2 = Sitkin | first2 = Sim B | title = Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Assessment and Way Forward | journal = Academy of Management Annals | date = 10 October 2022 | issn = 1941-6520 | eissn = 1941-6067 | doi = 10.5465/annals.2020.0340 | pmid = | url = }}</ref><ref name="hoch2018">Hoch, J. E., Bommer, W. H., Dulebohn, J. H., & Wu, D. (2018). Do ethical, authentic, and servant leadership explain variance above and beyond transformational leadership? A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 44(2), 501-529. {{doi|10.1177/0149206316665461}}</ref>.
+Co-leadership, or dual leaders may be advantageous<ref>Feigen at al. Is It Time to Consider Co-CEOs? HBR 2022 https://hbr.org/2022/07/is-it-time-to-consider-co-ceos</ref>.
+The organization of leaders and managers maybe important for healthcare as diverse backgrounds of leaders are needed<ref name="pmid7311636">{{cite journal| author=Shortell SM, LoGerfo JP| title=Hospital medical staff organization and quality of care: results for myocardial infarction and appendectomy. | journal=Med Care | year= 1981 | volume= 19 | issue= 10 | pages= 1041-55 | pmid=7311636 | doi=10.1097/00005650-198110000-00006 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7311636  }} </ref>. In this study, physicians integrated into leadership spots was associated with clinical performance.
+==Leadership vs management==
+An early description distinguishing leadership and management was by Zaleznik in 1977<ref name="Zaleznik1977">Zaleznik, A. 1977. Managers and leaders: Are they different? Harvard Business Review, 55:67-78. Available at </ref>. This have more recently discussed by Petriglieri who argues that we have focused too much on leadership<ref name="Petriglieri2020">{{cite journal|last1=Petriglieri|first1=Gianpiero|title=This is why we can’t have nice things: We are stuck with leaders… or managers. Commentary on Kniffin, Detert, & Leroy (2020)|journal=Academy of Management Discoveries|year=2020|issn=2168-1007|doi=10.5465/amd.2020.0009}}</ref>.
+THe distinction between management and leadership has become blurred, "managerial work has, for example, been replaced by the more appealing label leadership, used to denote any act of a person in a formal authority position"<ref name="AlvessonBlom2020">{{cite journal|last1=Alvesson|first1=Mats|last2=Blom|first2=Martin|title=EXPRESS: The Hegemonic Ambiguity of Big Concepts in Organization Studies|journal=Human Relations|year=2020|pages=001872672098684|issn=0018-7267|doi=10.1177/0018726720986847}}</ref>.
+A helpful video of recent research on both concepts and the importance of both is available by the Academy of Management<ref name="KniffinDetert2020">{{cite journal|last1=Kniffin|first1=Kevin M.|last2=Detert|first2=James R.|last3=Leroy|first3=Hannes L.|title=On Leading and Managing: Synonyms or Separate (and Unequal)?|journal=Academy of Management Discoveries|volume=6|issue=4|year=2020|pages=544–571|issn=2168-1007|doi=10.5465/amd.2018.0227}}</ref>
+===Informal leadership===
+Providing a positive voice has benefits:
+* "employees can help peers get a status boost from voicing, while also raising their own status, by introducing the concept of amplification"<ref name="BainKrepsMeikle2021">{{cite journal | last1 = Bain | first1 = Kristin | last2 = Kreps | first2 = Tamar A. | last3 = Meikle | first3 = Nathan L. | last4 = Tenney | first4 = Elizabeth R. | title = Amplifying Voice in Organizations | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = August 2021 | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 1288–1312 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2018.0621 | pmid = | url = }} Summary available at https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amj.2018.0621.summary</ref>
 ==Evidence-based management==
+{{main|Evidence-based management}}
 A gap between what research shows and managers practice has been noted<ref>Rynes, S. L., Bartunek, J. M., & Daft, R. L. (2001). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/3069460.pdf Across the Great Divide: Knowledge Creation and Transfer Between Practitioners and Academics]. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 340–355. {{doi|10.5465/3069460}}</ref><ref>Rynes, S. L., Brown, K. G., Colbert, A. E., & Hansen, R. A. (2002). [https://www2.bc.edu/candace-jones/articles/rynes_AME_2002.pdf Seven Common Misconceptions about Human Resource Practices: Research Findings versus Practitioner Beliefs and Executive Commentary]. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005), 16(3), 92–103.</ref><ref>Shapiro, D. L., & Kirkman, B. (2018). [https://hbr.org/2018/07/its-time-to-make-business-school-research-more-relevant It’s Time to Make Business School Research More Relevant]. Harvard Business Review.</ref><ref>Shapiro, D. L., Kirkman, B. L., & Courtney, H. G. (2007). Perceived Causes and Solutions of the Translation Problem in Management Research. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 249–266. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2007.24634433}}</ref>.
@@ Line 13: / Line 36: @@
 Concerns exists about how well MBA programs<ref>Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41318047 Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There?] Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. {{doi|10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222}}</ref>,  bridge and practitioner journals<ref>Rynes, Sara L., Tamara L. Giluk, and Kenneth G. Brown. 2007. “The Very Separate Worlds of Academic and Practitioner Periodicals in Human Resource Management: Implications for Evidence-Based Management.” Academy of Management Journal 50 (5): 987–1008. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2007.27151939}}</ref>, and textbooks<ref>Aguinis, Herman, Ravi S. Ramani, Nawaf Alabduljader, James Bailey, and Joowon Lee. 2018. “A Pluralist Conceptualization of Scholarly Impact in Management Education: Students as Stakeholders.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, August. {{doi|10.5465/amle.2017.0488}}</ref> teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners<ref>Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ beliefs about effective human resource practices: correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 149–174. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.10029}}</ref>.
+Alternative approaches to education have been suggested<ref>{{Cite web| last = Mintzberg| first = Henry| title = Time for Management Education| work = Mintzberg| accessdate = 2020-07-11| url = https://mintzberg.org/blog/management-education}}</ref>.
+The "push, pull, process" approach has been advocated and refers to publishing and disseminating quality research (push), managers learning all to retrieve new research findings after they finish formal education (pull), and systematically assessing publications (process)<ref name="Rousseau2020">{{cite journal|last1=Rousseau|first1=Denise|title=The Realist Rationality of Evidence-based Management|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|year=2020|issn=1537-260X|doi=10.5465/amle.2020.0050}}</ref>.
 [[Systematic review]]s have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.<ref>Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. {{doi|10.1111/1467-8551.00375}}</ref>
+Reporting standards have been proposed<ref>Aczel (2019). A consensus-based transparency checklist Available at https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-019-0772-6</ref>.
+Registration of studies before data collection has been advocated<ref>https://aspredicted.org/</ref>.
+===Barriers within leaders===
+Management students in Australia view evidence-based management (EBMgt) in one of 4 ways<ref name="WrightIrving2018">{{cite journal|last1=Wright|first1=April L.|last2=Irving|first2=Gemma|last3=Hibbert|first3=Paul|last4=Greenfield|first4=Geoff|title=Student Understandings of Evidence-Based Management: Ways of Doing and Being|journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education|volume=17|issue=4|year=2018|pages=453–473|issn=1537-260X|doi=10.5465/amle.2016.0249}}</ref>:
+* EBMgt as an unrealistic way of doing management. 12% or respondents
+* EBMgt as a way of doing management in particular situations. 34% or respondents
+* EBMgt as a generally useful way of doing management. 45% or respondents
+* EBMgt as an ideal way of being a manager. 9% or respondents
+The leadership knowing-doing gap may be affected by "motivation, prioritization, and confidence to enact leadership"<ref name="AhmadiVogel2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Ahmadi | first1 = Amal | last2 = Vogel | first2 = Bernd | title = Knowing but Not Enacting Leadership: Navigating the Leadership Knowing-Doing Gap in Leveraging Leadership Development | journal = Academy of Management Learning &amp; Education | date = 15 July 2022 | issn = 1537-260X | eissn = 1944-9585 | doi = 10.5465/amle.2020.0534 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 ==Selection and development of leaders ==
-[[Narcissism]] may be selected for.<ref>Mayo. [https://hbr.org/2017/04/if-humble-people-make-the-best-leaders-why-do-we-fall-for-charismatic-narcissists If humble people make better leaders, why do we fall for charismatic narcissists]. Harvard Business Review. 2017</ref><ref name="pmid18794326">{{cite journal| author=Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG| title=Leader emergence: the case of the narcissistic leader. | journal=Pers Soc Psychol Bull | year= 2008 | volume= 34 | issue= 12 | pages= 1663-76 | pmid=18794326 | doi=10.1177/0146167208324101 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18794326  }} </ref>
-[[File:Van_Velsor._Leadership_Dunning-Kruger_chart._Hman_Resource_Management_1993.png|200px|thumb|right|[[Dunning-Kruger effect]] in hospital administrators<ref name="Van_Velsor1993">Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.3930320205}}</ref>]]
+{{See also|Industrial_and_organizational_psychology#Hiring practices}}
-The selection for narcissism may be related to the [[Dunning-Kruger effect]] which has been noted to occur in the self-assessment of leadership skills.<ref name="Van_Velsor1993">Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.3930320205}}</ref><ref>Giambatista, Robert C., and J. Duane Hoover. "[https://absel-ojs-ttu.tdl.org/absel/index.php/absel/article/view/2126 An Exploration of Overconfidence in Experiential Learning of Behavioral Skills among MBA Students]." Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning 41 (2014).</ref><ref name="Bass Yammarino 1991 pp. 437–454">{{cite journal | last=Bass | first=Bernard M. | last2=Yammarino | first2=Francis J. | title=Congruence of Self and Others' Leadership Ratings of Naval Officers for Understanding Successful Performance | journal=Applied Psychology | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=40 | issue=4 | year=1991 | issn=0269-994X | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1991.tb01002.x | pages=437–454}}</ref><ref name="ATWATER YAMMARINO 1992 pp. 141–164">Atwater, Leanne E., and Francis J. Yammarino. "Does self‐other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions?." Personnel Psychology 45.1 (1992): 141-164. {{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00848.x}}</ref><ref>Sheldon, Oliver J., David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames. "Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence." Journal of Applied Psychology 99.1 (2014): 125. {{doi|10.1037/a0034138}}</ref>
+Individuals with promotive voices rather than a prohibitive voice are more likely to become leaders, especially if they are male<ref>McLean, Elizabeth et al. The Social Consequences of Voice: An Examination of Voice Type and Gender on Status and Subsequent Leader Emergence. Academy of Management Journal (2018) {doi|10.5465/amj.2016.0148}}}</ref>.
-Individuals with promotive voices rather than a prohibitive voice are more likely to become leaders.<ref>McClean, Elizabeth, et al. "The social consequences of voice: An examination of voice type and gender on status and subsequent leader emergence." Academy of Management Journal (2017): amj-2016. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2016.0148}}</ref>
+One study has validated the Peter Principle<ref>Benson et al (2017). Promotions and the Peter Principle. Benson, Alan and Li, Danielle and Shue, Kelly, Promotions and the Peter Principle (February 12, 2018). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3047193 or {{doi|10.2139/ssrn.3047193}}</ref>.
 "Emergent leaders showed a higher amount of active gestures and less passive facial expressions than non-leaders" according to eye-tracking studies of teams.<ref>Gerpott, F. H., Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., Silvis, J. D., & Van Vugt, M. (2017). In the eye of the beholder? An eye-tracking experiment on emergent leadership in team interactions. The Leadership Quarterly. {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.003}}</ref>
+"Extraversion predicts leadership emergence" but extraversion may be harmful in a proactive workforce<ref name="Grant2011">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Grant, A. M.)), ((Gino, F.)), ((Hofmann, D. A.)) | journal=Academy of Management Journal | title=Reversing the Extraverted Leadership Advantage: The Role of Employee Proactivity | volume=54 | issue=3 | pages=528–550 | publisher=Academy of Management | date= June 2011 | url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/amj.2011.61968043 | issn=0001-4273 | doi=10.5465/amj.2011.61968043 | access-date=3 August 2023}}</ref>.
+===Self-selection reasons===
+Leaders may choose their path for career, self-centered, 'me'<ref = "O’Reilly2021">{{cite journal | vauthors=((O’Reilly, C. A.)), ((Chatman, J. A.)), ((Doerr, B.)) | journal=Academy of Management Discoveries | title=When “Me” Trumps “We”: Narcissistic Leaders and the Cultures They Create | volume=7 | issue=3 | pages=419–450 | publisher=Academy of Management | date=1 September 2021 | doi=10.5465/amd.2019.0163}}
+</ref>, or mercenary reasons - as opposed to mission-driven reasons.
+===Evolutionary biology===
 Evolutionary biology may partly explain selection of leaders<ref>Van Vugt, M. (2006). Evolutionary Origins of Leadership and Followership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 354–371. {{doi|10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_5}}</ref>.
+===Charisma===
+Team leaders may be chosen by  taller, louder, or more confident rather than competence<ref>Cliffe S. “Leadership Qualities” vs. Competence: Which Matters More? HBR November, 2015. Available at https://hbr.org/2015/11/leadership-qualities-vs-competence-which-matters-more</ref>.
+===Gender===
+Women may make group decision making more effective<ref name="Woolley Chabris Pentland Hashmi 2010 pp. 686–688">{{cite journal | last=Woolley | first=Anita Williams | last2=Chabris | first2=Christopher F. | last3=Pentland | first3=Alex | last4=Hashmi | first4=Nada | last5=Malone | first5=Thomas W. | title=Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor in the Performance of Human Groups | journal=Science | publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) | volume=330 | issue=6004 | date=2010-10-29 | issn=0036-8075 | doi=10.1126/science.1193147 | pages=686–688}}</ref> and be inclined to more effective leadership styles<ref name="Eagly Johannesen-Schmidt van Engen 2003 pp. 569–591">{{cite journal | last=Eagly | first=Alice H. | last2=Johannesen-Schmidt | first2=Mary C. | last3=van Engen | first3=Marloes L. | title=Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. | journal=Psychological Bulletin | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=129 | issue=4 | year=2003 | issn=1939-1455 | doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569 | pages=569–591}}</ref>.
+Opt-in process for leadership selection may lead to less women leaders<ref name="10.3386/w26484 ">{{cite report | last=He | first=Joyce | last2=Kang | first2=Sonia | last3=Lacetera | first3=Nicola | title=Leaning In or Not Leaning Out? Opt-Out Choice Framing Attenuates Gender Differences in the Decision to Compete | publisher=National Bureau of Economic Research | publication-place=Cambridge, MA | year=2019 | doi=10.3386/w26484 | page=}}</ref>. Women are less likely to self-promote in their self-assesments<ref name="10.1093/qje/qjac003">{{cite journal | last=Exley | first=Christine L | last2=Kessler | first2=Judd B | title=The Gender Gap in Self-Promotion | journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics | publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) | volume=137 | issue=3 | date=2022-01-21 | issn=0033-5533 | doi=10.1093/qje/qjac003 | pages=1345–1381}}</ref><ref name="Eckel">Eckel, C., Gangadharan, L., Grossman, P. J., & Xue, N. (2021). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/353477230_The_gender_leadership_gap_insights_from_experiments The gender leadership gap: Insights from experiments]. A Research Agenda for Experimental Economics, 137-162.</ref>
+===Personality traits===
+Among the following 'Big five' personality traits<ref>https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bfi.htm</ref>:
+* Openness to experience
+* Conscientiousness
+* Extraversion
+* Agreeableness
+* Neuroticism
+[[Narcissism]] may be selected for.<ref>Mayo. [https://hbr.org/2017/04/if-humble-people-make-the-best-leaders-why-do-we-fall-for-charismatic-narcissists If humble people make better leaders, why do we fall for charismatic narcissists]. Harvard Business Review. 2017</ref><ref name="pmid18794326">{{cite journal| author=Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG| title=Leader emergence: the case of the narcissistic leader. | journal=Pers Soc Psychol Bull | year= 2008 | volume= 34 | issue= 12 | pages= 1663-76 | pmid=18794326 | doi=10.1177/0146167208324101 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18794326  }} </ref>
+[[File:Van_Velsor._Leadership_Dunning-Kruger_chart._Hman_Resource_Management_1993.png|200px|thumb|right|[[Dunning-Kruger effect]] in hospital administrators<ref name="Van_Velsor1993">Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.3930320205}}</ref>]]
+===Dunning-Kruger effect===
+The selection for narcissism may be related to the [[Dunning-Kruger effect]] which has been noted to occur in the self-assessment of leadership skills.<ref name="Van_Velsor1993">Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. {{doi|10.1002/hrm.3930320205}}</ref><ref>Giambatista, Robert C., and J. Duane Hoover. "[https://absel-ojs-ttu.tdl.org/absel/index.php/absel/article/view/2126 An Exploration of Overconfidence in Experiential Learning of Behavioral Skills among MBA Students]." Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning 41 (2014).</ref><ref name="Bass Yammarino 1991 pp. 437–454">{{cite journal | last=Bass | first=Bernard M. | last2=Yammarino | first2=Francis J. | title=Congruence of Self and Others' Leadership Ratings of Naval Officers for Understanding Successful Performance | journal=Applied Psychology | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell | volume=40 | issue=4 | year=1991 | issn=0269-994X | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1991.tb01002.x | pages=437–454}}</ref><ref name="ATWATER YAMMARINO 1992 pp. 141–164">Atwater, Leanne E., and Francis J. Yammarino. "Does self‐other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions?." Personnel Psychology 45.1 (1992): 141-164. {{doi|10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00848.x}}</ref><ref>Sheldon, Oliver J., David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames. "Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence." Journal of Applied Psychology 99.1 (2014): 125. {{doi|10.1037/a0034138}}</ref>
+The overconfidence of some individuals may be viewed as competence by other individuals<ref name="BelmiNeale2019">{{cite journal|last1=Belmi|first1=Peter|last2=Neale|first2=Margaret A.|last3=Reiff|first3=David|last4=Ulfe|first4=Rosemary|title=The social advantage of miscalibrated individuals: The relationship between social class and overconfidence and its implications for class-based inequality.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=2019|issn=1939-1315|doi=10.1037/pspi0000187}}</ref>
+.
 Aphorisms about selection of leaders:
 * Peter Principle
 * Dilbert Principle
+===Core-self evaluation===
+Core-self evaluation includes<ref name="JudgeBono2001">{{cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Bono|first2=Joyce E.|title=Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=86|issue=1|year=2001|pages=80–92|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80}}</ref>:
+* Self-esteem
+* Self-efficacy
+* Locus of control
+* Emotional stability (low neuroticism)
+Hypercore self‐evaluation has a positive effect on innovation behavior by leaders; however, selfism and overconfidence has a negative effect<ref name="StockGroß2019">{{cite journal|last1=Stock|first1=Ruth|last2=Groß|first2=Matthias|last3=Xin|first3=Katherine R.|title=Will Self-Love Take a Fall? Effects of Top Executives' Positive Self-Regard on Firm Innovativeness|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|volume=36|issue=1|year=2019|pages=41–65|issn=07376782|doi=10.1111/jpim.12443}}</ref>.
+Low managerial self-efficacy and ego defensivism makes managers less likely to solict employee voice, positively evaluate an employee who speaks up, and reduced implementation of employee voice<ref name="FastBurris2014">{{cite journal|last1=Fast|first1=Nathanael J.|last2=Burris|first2=Ethan R.|last3=Bartel|first3=Caroline A.|title=Managing to Stay in the Dark: Managerial Self-Efficacy, Ego Defensiveness, and the Aversion to Employee Voice|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=57|issue=4|year=2014|pages=1013–1034|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2012.0393}}</ref>.
+===Humility===
+The harm of narcissism in leaders may be mitigated by humility<ref>Owens, B. P., Wallace, A. S., & Waldman, D. A. (2015). Leader narcissism and follower outcomes: The counterbalancing effect of leader humility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1203. {{doi|10.1037/a0038698}}</ref> Humility, predicted by self-expansion theory, has been found to increase self-expansion and self-efficacy of followers<ref>Mao, J., Chiu, C.-Y. (Chad), Owens, B. P., Brown, J. A., & Liao, J. (n.d.). Growing Followers: Exploring the Effects of Leader Humility on Follower Self-Expansion, Self-Efficacy, and Performance. Journal of Management Studies, 0(ja). {{10.1111/joms.12395}}</ref>. However, humility may not be effective in teams that expect a high power distance or expect dominating leaders.<ref>Hu, J., Erdogan, B., Jiang, K., Bauer, T. N., & Liu, S. (2018). Leader humility and team creativity: The role of team information sharing, psychological safety, and power distance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3), 313–323. {{doi|10.1037/apl0000277}}</ref>
+Humility in leaders may be effective when teams have proactive personalities<ref name="LeblancRousseauHarvey2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Leblanc | first1 = Pierre‐Marc | last2 = Rousseau | first2 = Vincent | last3 = Harvey | first3 = Jean‐François | title = Leader humility and team innovation: The role of team reflexivity and team proactive personality | journal = Journal of Organizational Behavior | date = 8 June 2022 | volume = 43 | issue = 8 | pages = 1396–1409 | issn = 0894-3796 | eissn = 1099-1379 | doi = 10.1002/job.2648 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 ===Masters in Business Administration===
@@ Line 37: / Line 129: @@
 It is not clear that the curricula in masters programs reflect best research<ref>Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. {{doi|10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222}}</ref>.
-===Humility===
+===Leadership training===
-The harm of narcissism in leaders may be mitigated by humility<ref>Owens, B. P., Wallace, A. S., & Waldman, D. A. (2015). Leader narcissism and follower outcomes: The counterbalancing effect of leader humility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1203. {{doi|10.1037/a0038698}}</ref> Humility, predicted by self-expansion theory, has been found to increase self-expansion and self-efficacy of followers<ref>Mao, J., Chiu, C.-Y. (Chad), Owens, B. P., Brown, J. A., & Liao, J. (n.d.). Growing Followers: Exploring the Effects of Leader Humility on Follower Self-Expansion, Self-Efficacy, and Performance. Journal of Management Studies, 0(ja). {{10.1111/joms.12395}}</ref>. However, humility may not be effective in teams that expect a high power distance or expect dominating leaders.<ref>Hu, J., Erdogan, B., Jiang, K., Bauer, T. N., & Liu, S. (2018). Leader humility and team creativity: The role of team information sharing, psychological safety, and power distance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(3), 313–323. {{doi|10.1037/apl0000277}}</ref>
+Leadership training can be effective<ref>Lacerenza, C. N., Reyes, D. L., Marlow, S. L., Joseph, D. L., & Salas, E. (2017). [http://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2017-32276-001 Leadership training design, delivery, and implementation: A meta-analysis]. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(12), 1686.</ref>.
+In academic health center], the effect of leadership training may be more to the benefit to advancement of the trainee that to improvement of the institution<ref name="pmid23524921">{{cite journal| author=Straus SE, Soobiah C, Levinson W| title=The impact of leadership training programs on physicians in academic medical centers: a systematic review. | journal=Acad Med | year= 2013 | volume= 88 | issue= 5 | pages= 710-23 | pmid=23524921 | doi=10.1097/ACM.0b013e31828af493 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23524921  }} </ref>.
+The self-esteeem and mindset of the trainee may determine whether the trainee focuses improvement on self versus organization<ref name="SpreitzerQuinn2016">{{cite journal|last1=Spreitzer|first1=Gretchen M.|last2=Quinn|first2=Robert E.|title=Empowering Middle Managers to be Transformational Leaders|journal=The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science|volume=32|issue=3|year=2016|pages=237–261|issn=0021-8863|doi=10.1177/0021886396323001}}</ref>.
+Leadership training in healthcare may be more effective if taught in conjunction with institutional projects<ref name="pmid29355187">{{cite journal| author=Sonnino RE| title=Health care leadership development and training: progress and pitfalls. | journal=J Healthc Leadersh | year= 2016 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 19-29 | pmid=29355187 | doi=10.2147/JHL.S68068 | pmc=5741005 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29355187  }} </ref>.
 ==Leadership styles related to worksite climate==
+Leadership research is complicated by construct proliferation and construct redundancy<ref name="hoch2018">Hoch, J. E., Bommer, W. H., Dulebohn, J. H., & Wu, D. (2018). Do ethical, authentic, and servant leadership explain variance above and beyond transformational leadership? A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 44(2), 501-529. {{doi|10.1177/0149206316665461}}</ref>
 Leadership style affects [[Industrial and organizational psychology | work climate]].
@@ Line 57: / Line 158: @@
 Bass added the concept of laissez-faire leadership in 1997.<ref>Bass MB. The Future of Leadership in Learning Organizations. J of Leadership & Organizational Studies 2000 {{DOI|10.1177%2F107179190000700302}}</ref><ref>Bass, Bernard M. "Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries?." American psychologist 52.2 (1997): 130. {{doi|10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130}}</ref>
-Leadership styles may effect [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]] of employees<ref name="pmid25796117">{{cite journal| author=Shanafelt TD, Gorringe G, Menaker R, Storz KA, Reeves D, Buskirk SJ et al.| title=Impact of organizational leadership on physician burnout and satisfaction. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2015 | volume= 90 | issue= 4 | pages= 432-40 | pmid=25796117 | doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.01.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25796117  }} </ref> and leaders themselves.<ref name="pmid24490967">{{cite journal| author=Courtright SH, Colbert AE, Choi D| title=Fired up or burned out? How developmental challenge differentially impacts leader behavior. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2014 | volume= 99 | issue= 4 | pages= 681-96 | pmid=24490967 | doi=10.1037/a0035790 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24490967  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25844908">{{cite journal| author=Arnold KA, Connelly CE, Walsh MM, Ginis KA| title=Leadership styles, emotion regulation, and burnout. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2015 | volume= 20 | issue= 4 | pages= 481-90 | pmid=25844908 | doi=10.1037/a0039045 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25844908  }} </ref>.
+Leadership styles may effect [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]] of employees who are physicians<ref name="pmid25796117">{{cite journal| author=Shanafelt TD, Gorringe G, Menaker R, Storz KA, Reeves D, Buskirk SJ et al.| title=Impact of organizational leadership on physician burnout and satisfaction. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2015 | volume= 90 | issue= 4 | pages= 432-40 | pmid=25796117 | doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2015.01.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25796117  }} </ref> and non-physicians<ref name="pmid32247343">{{cite journal| author=Dyrbye LN, Major-Elechi B, Hays JT, Fraser CH, Buskirk SJ, West CP| title=Relationship Between Organizational Leadership and Health Care Employee Burnout and Satisfaction. | journal=Mayo Clin Proc | year= 2020 | volume= 95 | issue= 4 | pages= 698-708 | pmid=32247343 | doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.10.041 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=32247343  }} </ref> as well the burnout of the leaders themselves.<ref name="pmid24490967">{{cite journal| author=Courtright SH, Colbert AE, Choi D| title=Fired up or burned out? How developmental challenge differentially impacts leader behavior. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2014 | volume= 99 | issue= 4 | pages= 681-96 | pmid=24490967 | doi=10.1037/a0035790 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24490967  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25844908">{{cite journal| author=Arnold KA, Connelly CE, Walsh MM, Ginis KA| title=Leadership styles, emotion regulation, and burnout. | journal=J Occup Health Psychol | year= 2015 | volume= 20 | issue= 4 | pages= 481-90 | pmid=25844908 | doi=10.1037/a0039045 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25844908  }} </ref>.
 ===Laissez-faire===
 Laissez-faire may be the most common of the destructive leadership patterns<ref>Aasland; Merethe Schanke; Skogstad; Anders; Notelaers; Guy; Nielsen, Morten Birkeland; & Einarsen, Ståle. (2010). The Prevalence of Destructive Leadership Behaviour. British Journal of Management, 21(2), 438–452. {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-8551.2009.00672.x}}</ref>.
-Laissez-faire, in health care, is associated with low subordinate [[job satisfaction]] and effort.<ref name="pmid16330822">{{cite journal| author=Xirasagar S, Samuels ME, Stoskopf CH| title=Physician leadership styles and effectiveness: an empirical study. | journal=Med Care Res Rev | year= 2005 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 720-40 | pmid=16330822 | doi=10.1177/1077558705281063 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16330822  }} </ref>
+Laissez-faire, in health care, is associated with low subordinate [[job satisfaction]] and effort.<ref name="pmid16330822">{{cite journal| author=Xirasagar S, Samuels ME, Stoskopf CH| title=Physician leadership styles and effectiveness: an empirical study. | journal=Med Care Res Rev | year= 2005 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 720-40 | pmid=16330822 | doi=10.1177/1077558705281063 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16330822  }} </ref> In other industries, laissez-faire is also associated with reduced team performance<ref>Wellman, N., Newton, D. W., Wang, D., Wei, W., Waldman, D. A., & LePine, J. A. (n.d.). Meeting the need or falling in line? The effect of laissez-faire formal leaders on informal leadership. Personnel Psychology, 0(ja). {{doi|10.1111/peps.12308}}</ref>.
 Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap.<ref name="pmid19579573">{{cite journal| author=Xirasagar S| title=Transformational, transactional among physician and laissez-faire leadership among physician executives. | journal=J Health Organ Manag | year= 2008 | volume= 22 | issue= 6 | pages= 599-613 | pmid=19579573 | doi=10.1108/14777260810916579 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19579573  }} </ref>
@@ Line 71: / Line 172: @@
 * Adam Smith wrote about the worker, “It is the interest of every man to live as much at his ease as he can”.
 * Frederick Taylor later added that the worker “is so stupid that the word ‘percentage’ has no meaning to him, and he must consequently be trained by a man more intelligent than himself.”
+Transactional leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits<ref name="pmid15506869">{{cite journal| author=Bono JE, Judge TA| title=Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2004 | volume= 89 | issue= 5 | pages= 901-10 | pmid=15506869 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15506869  }} </ref>:
+* Agreeableness
+* Extraversion
+* Openness (insignificant)
+* Conscientiousness (insignificant)
+* Neuroticism (negative association)
 When converting from transactional to empowering leadership, teams may transiently function more slowly.<ref>Lorinkova NM, Pearsall MJ, Sims HP. [http://amj.aom.org/content/56/2/573.short Examining the Differential Longitudinal Performance of Directive versus Empowering Leadership in Teams]. ACAD MANAGE J. 2013 Apr 1;56(2):573–96.</ref>
@@ Line 78: / Line 186: @@
 Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap and management by passive exception may be within laissez-faire.<ref name="pmid19579573">{{cite journal| author=Xirasagar S| title=Transformational, transactional among physician and laissez-faire leadership among physician executives. | journal=J Health Organ Manag | year= 2008 | volume= 22 | issue= 6 | pages= 599-613 | pmid=19579573 | doi=10.1108/14777260810916579 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19579573  }} </ref>
+==== Outcomes of transactional leadership ====
+Transactional leadership tactics were found by a [[meta-analysis]] in 2004 to positively and significantly affect the following compared to transformational leadership<ref name="Judge Piccolo 2004 pp. 755–768">{{cite journal | last=Judge | first=Timothy A. | last2=Piccolo | first2=Ronald F. | title=Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity. | journal=Journal of Applied Psychology | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=89 | issue=5 | year=2004 | issn=1939-1854 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.755 | pages=755–768}}</ref>:
+* Transformational leadership had a higher validity than did contingent reward: follower satisfaction with leader and leader effectiveness
+* Contingent reward had significantly higher validity: follower job satisfaction and leader job performance
+Other studies have found benefit from transactional leadership<ref name="pmid27293380">{{cite journal| author=Asiri SA, Rohrer WW, Al-Surimi K, Da'ar OO, Ahmed A| title=The association of leadership styles and empowerment with nurses' organizational commitment in an acute health care setting: a cross-sectional study. | journal=BMC Nurs | year= 2016 | volume= 15 | issue=  | pages= 38 | pmid=27293380 | doi=10.1186/s12912-016-0161-7 | pmc=4901399 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27293380  }} </ref>
+Transactional leadership, if leading to zero-sum assessments by employees, can be problematic<ref name="Kakkar Sivanathan 2022 pp. 1706–1724">{{cite journal | last=Kakkar | first=Hemant | last2=Sivanathan | first2=Niro | title=The impact of leader dominance on employees’ zero-sum mindset and helping behavior. | journal=Journal of Applied Psychology | publisher=American Psychological Association (APA) | volume=107 | issue=10 | year=2022 | issn=1939-1854 | doi=10.1037/apl0000980 | pages=1706–1724}}</ref>.
 ===Transformational===
+Transformational leadership has the following dimensions (4 I's), the first two, Idealised Influence and Inspirational Motivation, when combined are charisma:
+* Idealized Influence (role modeling).
+** Attributed: “My supervisor acts in ways that build my respect”<ref name="Gong2009">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Gong, Y.)), ((Huang, J.-C.)), ((Farh, J.-L.)) | journal=Academy of Management Journal | title=Employee Learning Orientation, Transformational Leadership, and Employee Creativity: The Mediating Role of Employee Creative Self-Efficacy | volume=52 | issue=4 | pages=765–778 | publisher=Academy of Management | date= August 2009 | url=https://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amj.2009.43670890 | issn=0001-4273 | doi=10.5465/amj.2009.43670890 | access-date=9 July 2023}}</ref> Note that Aviolo found that "displays power and confidence" was the lowest loading factor for charisma<ref name="Aviolo2010"/>.
+** Behavior: "talks enthusiastically"<ref name="Aviolo2010">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Avolio, B. J.)), ((Bass, B. M.)), ((Jung, D. I.)) | journal=Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology | title=Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the Multifactor Leadership | volume=72 | issue=4 | pages=441–462 | date= 1999 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/096317999166789 | issn=2044-8325 | doi=10.1348/096317999166789 | access-date=9 July 2023}}</ref>, “My supervisor talks to us about his/her most important values and beliefs”<ref name="Gong2009"/>
+* Inspirational Motivation, “My supervisor expresses his/her confidence that we will achieve our goals”<ref name="Gong2009"/>. Motivation may be better provided by beneficiaries of a company's services rather than the company's leadership<ref name="GrantHofmann2011">{{cite journal|last1=Grant|first1=Adam M.|last2=Hofmann|first2=David A.|title=Outsourcing inspiration: The performance effects of ideological messages from leaders and beneficiaries|journal=Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes|volume=116|issue=2|year=2011|pages=173–187|issn=07495978|doi=10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.06.005}}</ref>.
+* Individualized Consideration (of followers), "focuses your strengths"<ref name="Aviolo2010"/>, “My supervisor spends time teaching and coaching me”<ref name="Gong2009"/>
+* Intellectual Stimulation. "suggests different angles"<ref name="Aviolo2010"/>, “My supervisor seeks differing perspectives when solving problems”<ref name="Gong2009"/>
+Teaching charisma, Idealised Influence and Inspirational Motivation, has been studied<ref name="Antonakis Fenley Liechti 2011 pp. 374–396">{{cite journal | last=Antonakis | first=John | last2=Fenley | first2=Marika | last3=Liechti | first3=Sue | title=Can Charisma Be Taught? Tests of Two Interventions | journal=Academy of Management Learning & Education | publisher=Academy of Management | volume=10 | issue=3 | year=2011 | issn=1537-260X | doi=10.5465/amle.2010.0012 | pages=374–396}}</ref>.
+Transformational leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits<ref name="pmid15506869">{{cite journal| author=Bono JE, Judge TA| title=Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2004 | volume= 89 | issue= 5 | pages= 901-10 | pmid=15506869 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.901 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15506869  }} </ref>:
+* Extraversion (strongest)
+* Openness
+* Agreeableness
+* Conscientiousness
+* Neuroticism (negative association)
+Authentic leadership and ethical leadership may actually be tranformational leadership<ref name="hoch2018">Hoch, J. E., Bommer, W. H., Dulebohn, J. H., & Wu, D. (2018). Do ethical, authentic, and servant leadership explain variance above and beyond transformational leadership? A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 44(2), 501-529. {{doi|10.1177/0149206316665461}}</ref>.
 This style may be the most effective in healthcare on employee responses and clinical outcomes.<ref name="pmid16708688">{{cite journal| author=Spinelli RJ| title=The applicability of Bass's model of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership in the hospital administrative environment. | journal=Hosp Top | year= 2006 | volume= 84 | issue= 2 | pages= 11-8 | pmid=16708688 | doi=10.3200/HTPS.84.2.11-19 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16708688  }} </ref>
@@ Line 90: / Line 228: @@
 Transformational leadership may build on transactional leadership, "for transformational leadership to be effective,the leader must first build trust and follower responsiveness on the basis of tangible, transactional processes perceived as fair."<ref name="pmid16330822">{{cite journal| author=Xirasagar S, Samuels ME, Stoskopf CH| title=Physician leadership styles and effectiveness: an empirical study. | journal=Med Care Res Rev | year= 2005 | volume= 62 | issue= 6 | pages= 720-40 | pmid=16330822 | doi=10.1177/1077558705281063 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16330822  }} </ref>
+Transformational leadership may cause leader emotional exhaustion and subsequent leader turnover intentions, especially when followers are low in conscientiousness or competence<ref>Lin S, Scott BA, Matta FK (2018). “The Dark Side of Transformational Leader Behaviors for Leader Themselves: A Conservation of Resources Perspective.” Academy of Management Journal, October. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2016.1255}}</ref>.
+====Measurement====
+Transformational leadership can be measured with the proprietary Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) <ref>Bass BM, Avolio BJ. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (form R, revised) Palo Alto, CA: Mind Garden, Inc; 1995. Available at https://www.mindgarden.com/16-multifactor-leadership-questionnaire</ref> or other instruments<ref name="pmid20509734">{{cite journal| author=Edwards JR, Knight DK, Broome KM, Flynn PM| title=The development and validation of a transformational leadership survey for substance use treatment programs. | journal=Subst Use Misuse | year= 2010 | volume= 45 | issue= 9 | pages= 1279-302 | pmid=20509734 | doi=10.3109/10826081003682834 | pmc=4006131 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20509734  }} </ref>.
 ===Enabling or Empowering leadership===
-Enabling leadership attempts to bridge the needs to innovate and to produce<ref name="doi10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009">Uhl-Bien, M., & Arena, M. (2018). Leadership for organizational adaptability: A theoretical synthesis and integrative framework. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(1), 89–104. {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009}}</ref><ref>Lusiani, M., & Langley, A. (2018). The social construction of strategic coherence: Practices of enabling leadership. Long Range Planning. {{doi|10.1016/j.lrp.2018.05.006}}</ref>. Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory.
+Enabling leadership attempts to bridge the needs to innovate and to produce<ref name="ISBN978-0-7879-5583-0">Spreitzer, Gretchen M., and Robert E. Quinn. 2001. A Company of Leaders: Five Disciplines for Unleashing the Power in Your Workforce. 1 edition. San Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass. {{ISBN|978-0-7879-5583-0}}</ref><ref name="Uhl-BienArena2018">{{cite journal|last1=Uhl-Bien|first1=Mary|last2=Arena|first2=Michael|title=Leadership for organizational adaptability: A theoretical synthesis and integrative framework|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=29|issue=1|year=2018|pages=89–104|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009}}</ref><ref>Lusiani, M., & Langley, A. (2018). The social construction of strategic coherence: Practices of enabling leadership. Long Range Planning. {{doi|10.1016/j.lrp.2018.05.006}}</ref>. Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory<ref name="Uhl-Bien,Arena.2017">Uhl-Bien, Mary, and Michael Arena. 2017. “Complexity Leadership: Enabling People and Organizations for Adaptability.” Organizational Dynamics 46 (1): 9–20. {{doi|10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.12.001}}</ref>.
-Empowering leadership is defined variably<ref>Seibert, Scott E., Gang Wang, and Stephen H. Courtright. "Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: a meta-analytic review." (2011): 981. {{doi|10.1037/a0022676}}</ref><ref>Drasgow, 1994 ('Empowered work groups: conceptual and empirical assessment of empowering processes and outcomes in organization': Paper presented as part of a annual meetings of the Society of the Industrial and Organizational Psychologists, TN, U.S.A.</ref><ref>Manz, C. C. and Sims, H. P. Jr. (1987). 'Leading workers to lead themselves: the external leadership of self- managed work teams', Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 106-128 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2392745 JSTOR]</ref> but includes:
+Empowering leadership is defined variably<ref name="Seibert2011">Seibert, Scott E., Gang Wang, and Stephen H. Courtright. "Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: a meta-analytic review." (2011): 981. {{doi|10.1037/a0022676}}</ref><ref>Drasgow, 1994 ('Empowered work groups: conceptual and empirical assessment of empowering processes and outcomes in organization': Paper presented as part of a annual meetings of the Society of the Industrial and Organizational Psychologists, TN, U.S.A.</ref><ref>Manz, C. C. and Sims, H. P. Jr. (1987). 'Leading workers to lead themselves: the external leadership of self- managed work teams', Administrative Science Quarterly, 32, 106-128 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2392745 JSTOR]</ref> but includes:
 * Autonomy support<ref name="Nix2000">Nix, Glen A., et al. "Revitalization through self-regulation: The effects of autonomous and controlled motivation on happiness and vitality." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35.3 (1999): 266-284. {{doi|10.1006/jesp.1999.1382}}</ref>. Autonomy adds to mastery.<ref name="Nix2000"/> Perceived autonomy is associated with less [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]].<ref>Fernet, Claude, et al. "How do job characteristics contribute to burnout? Exploring the distinct mediating roles of perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness." European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 22.2 (2013): 123-137. {{doi|10.1080/1359432X.2011.632161}}</ref>
+A more detailed summary is proposed by Spreitzer<ref name="ISBN978-0-7879-5583-0">Spreitzer, Gretchen M., and Robert E. Quinn. 2001. A Company of Leaders: Five Disciplines for Unleashing the Power in Your Workforce. 1 edition. San Francisco, Calif: Jossey-Bass. {{ISBN|978-0-7879-5583-0}}</ref>:
+# The First Discipline: Empower the Person Who Matters Most
+# The Second Discipline: Continuous Vision and Challenge
+# The Third Discipline: Continuous Support and Security
+# The Fourth Discipline: Continuous Openness and Trust
+# The Fifth Discipline: Continuous Guidance and Control
 Similar concepts are<ref>Meuser, Jeremy D., et al. "A network analysis of leadership theory: The infancy of integration." Journal of Management 42.5 (2016): 1374-1403. {{doi|10.1177/0149206316647099}}</ref>:
-* Gardener leadership<ref>McChrystal GS, Collins T, Silverman D, Fussell C. Team of Teams: New Rules of Engagement for a Complex World. 1 edition. Portfolio; 2015. 289 p. {{ISBN|1591847486}}</ref>
+* Gardener leadership, earlier proposed by Fierz<ref>Fierz, W., Cultivating complex ICT in health care: the gardeners perspective. Available at https://www.academia.edu/download/69792708/Cultivating_complex_ICT_in_health_care_t20210917-17528-1x8e4vz.pdf</ref> and later detailed by McChrstal<ref>McChrystal GS, Collins T, Silverman D, Fussell C. Team of Teams: New Rules of Engagement for a Complex World. 1 edition. Portfolio; 2015. 289 p. {{ISBN|1591847486}}</ref>
-* Servant leadership<ref>Greenleaf, Robert K. "[http://www.american.edu/spa/leadership/application/upload/Greenleaf,%20%20Leadership.pdf  leadership]." (1977). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press</ref>.
+* Servant leadership<ref name="Greenlead1973">Greenleaf RK. The Servant As Leader. Rev. ed. Cambridge Mass: Center for Applied Studies; 1973. https://www.worldcat.org/title/1839828</ref><ref name="Greenlead1977">Greenleaf RK. Servant Leadership : A Journey into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. New York: Paulist Press; 1977. https://www.worldcat.org/title/2985632</ref> Servant leadership may promote thriving<ref name="XuWang2019">{{cite journal|last1=Xu|first1=Angela J.|last2=Wang|first2=Lei|title=How and When Servant Leaders Enable Collective Thriving: The Role of Team–Member Exchange and Political Climate|journal=British Journal of Management|year=2019|issn=1045-3172|doi=10.1111/1467-8551.12358}}</ref>.
-* Three types of leadership that focus on  giving employees decision making but may not include giving employees information to guide their decision making.
+** Employee perception of servant [[leadership]] and the factors of [[self-determination theory]] are more likely to have extra-role behavior<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1111/jasp.12716| issn = 1559-1816| volume = n/a| issue = n/a| last1 = Brière| first1 = Mathilde| last2 = Roy| first2 = Jeanne Le| last3 = Meier| first3 = Olivier| title = Linking servant leadership to positive deviant behavior: The mediating role of self-determination theory| journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology| accessdate = 2020-10-21| url = https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jasp.12716}}</ref>.
+**Covey describes the four roles of leadership—modeling, pathfinding, alignment, and empowerment—<ref name="Covey2006">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Covey, S. R.)) | journal=The International Journal of Servant-Leadership | title=Servant-Leadership and Community Leadership in the 21st Century | volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=103–109 | publisher=International Journal of Servant-Leadership Gonzaga University | date= 2006 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2221758231/abstract/565D9D518DF540E2PQ/1 | issn=21608164 | access-date=31 May 2023}} [https://www.spearscenter.org/docs2010/InternationalJournalofServantLeadership2006.pdf#page=79 PDF]</ref>
+** Spears described the 10 characteristics of servant-leaders as" Listening, Empathy, Awareness, Healing, Foresight, Persuasion, Conceptualization, Stewardship, Community Building, and Commitment to People's Development <ref name="Spears2004">{{cite journal | vauthors=((Spears, L. C.)) | journal=Leader to Leader | title=Practicing servant-leadership | volume=2004 | issue=34 | pages=7–11 | publisher=Wiley Periodicals Inc. | date= Fall 2004 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/218344443/abstract/19FF764955EF4DF3PQ/1 | issn=10878149 | access-date=31 May 2023}}</ref>
+* Types of leadership that focus on giving employees decision-making but may not include giving employees information to guide their decision-making.
 ** Shared Leadership<ref>D’Innocenzo, L., Mathieu, J. E., & Kukenberger, M. R. (2016). A Meta-Analysis of Different Forms of Shared Leadership–Team Performance Relations. Journal of Management, 42(7), 1964–1991. {{doi|10.1177/0149206314525205}}</ref><ref>Pearce, C. L., & Conger, J. A. (2002). Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Sage. ISBN {{ISBN|1452276765}}</ref>
 ** Distributed leadership
+** Servant leadership
 ** Participative Leadership<ref>Gilson, L., & Agyepong, I. A. (2018). Strengthening health system leadership for better governance: what does it take? Health Policy and Planning, 33(suppl_2), ii1–ii4. {{doi|10.1093/heapol/czy052}}</ref>
 ** Democratic leadership
@@ Line 108: / Line 264: @@
 Empowering leadership may be compatible with AGILE development, which may conflict with command and control leadership<ref>Rigby, D. [https://hbr.org/2018/05/bureaucracy-can-drain-your-companys-energy-agile-can-restore-it Bureaucracy Can Drain Your Company’s Energy. Agile Can Restore It]; Harvard Business Review 2018</ref>.
+The [[World Health Organization]] recommends participatory leadership as one of 4 reforms needed for [[primary health care]], “leadership reforms need to steer away from either ‘command and control’ or ‘laissez-faire disengagement’ towards a participatory style”<ref name="pmid23372580">{{cite journal| author=Gauld R, Blank R, Burgers J, Cohen AB, Dobrow M, Ikegami N et al.| title=The World Health Report 2008 - Primary Healthcare: How Wide Is the Gap between Its Agenda and Implementation in 12 High-Income Health Systems? | journal=Healthc Policy | year= 2012 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 38-58 | pmid=23372580 | doi= | pmc=3298021 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23372580  }} </ref>
+In health care administration, physician leaders have difficulty relinquishing control and feel threatened by empowering others<ref>Stewart, G. L., Astrove, S. L., Reeves, C. J., Crawford, E. R., & Solimeo, S. (2017). Those with the most find it hardest to share: Exploring leader resistance to the implementation of team-based empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, amj-2015 {{doi|10.5465/amj.2015.1173}}</ref>.
+====Impact====
 Shared leadership may improve team performance according to a meta-analysis of 42 studies<ref>Wang, Danni, David A. Waldman, and Zhen Zhang. 2014. “A Meta-Analysis of Shared Leadership and Team Effectiveness.” Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2): 181–98. {{doi|10.1037/a0034531}}</ref>.
-The [[World Health Organization]] recommends participatory leadership as one of 4 reforms needed for [[primary health care]], “leadership reforms need to steer away from either ‘command and control’ or ‘laissez-faire disengagement’ towards a participatory style”<ref name="pmid23372580">{{cite journal| author=Gauld R, Blank R, Burgers J, Cohen AB, Dobrow M, Ikegami N et al.| title=The World Health Report 2008 - Primary Healthcare: How Wide Is the Gap between Its Agenda and Implementation in 12 High-Income Health Systems? | journal=Healthc Policy | year= 2012 | volume= 7 | issue= 3 | pages= 38-58 | pmid=23372580 | doi= | pmc=3298021 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23372580  }} </ref>
+Empowering leadership may improve performnce<ref>D’Innocenzo, Lauren, Margaret M. Luciano, John E. Mathieu, M. Travis Maynard, and Gilad Chen. 2015. “Empowered to Perform: A Multilevel Investigation of the Influence of Empowerment on Performance in Hospital Units.” Academy of Management Journal 59 (4): 1290–1307. {{doi|10.5465/amj.2013.1073}}</ref><ref>D’Innocenzo, Lauren, John E. Mathieu, and Michael R. Kukenberger. 2016. “A Meta-Analysis of Different Forms of Shared Leadership–Team Performance Relations.” Journal of Management 42 (7): 1964–91. {{doi|10.1177/0149206314525205}}</ref><ref name="Seibert2011">Seibert, Scott E., Gang Wang, and Stephen H. Courtright. 2011. “Antecedents and Consequences of Psychological and Team Empowerment in Organizations: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Journal of Applied Psychology 96 (5): 981–1003. {{doi|10.35335/enrichment.v12i4.673}} {{doi|10.1037/a0022676}}</ref><ref name="Indragiri2022">Indragiri D. Systematic Literature Review: Empowerment Leadership on Performance. Enrichment: Journal of Management. 2022 Oct 17;12(4):2863-71.< available at https://enrichment.iocspublisher.org/index.php/enrichment/article/view/673 /ref>.
+====Principle of subsidiarity====
+Subsidiarity is defined as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level".<ref>Oxford English Dictionary. https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/subsidiarity</ref><ref>antrappen H. Wirtz F. When to Decentralize Decision Making, and When Not To. Harvard Business Review 2017. Available at https://hbr.org/2017/12/when-to-decentralize-decision-making-and-when-not-to</ref>
-In health care administration, physician leaders have difficulty relinquishing control and feel threatened by empowering others<ref>Stewart, G. L., Astrove, S. L., Reeves, C. J., Crawford, E. R., & Solimeo, S. (2017). Those with the most find it hardest to share: Exploring leader resistance to the implementation of team-based empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, amj-2015 {{doi|10.5465/amj.2015.1173}}</ref>.
+Empowering leadership is consistent with the principle of subsidiarity<ref>Vantrappen, Herman, and Frederic Wirtz. “[https://hbr.org/2017/12/when-to-decentralize-decision-making-and-when-not-to When to Decentralize Decision Making, and When Not To.]” Subsidiarity, Dec. 2017</ref>.
+* "Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them."<ref>Pius XI. “[http://w2.vatican.va/content/pius-xi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno.html Quadragesimo Anno.]” The Holy See, 15 May 1931</ref>
 ====Measuring empowerment====
+Multiple instruments are available<ref>Cheong, Minyoung, Francis J. Yammarino, Shelley D. Dionne, Seth M. Spain, and Chou-Yu Tsai. 2018. “A Review of the Effectiveness of Empowering Leadership.” The Leadership Quarterly, September. {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.08.005}}</ref>.
 The Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) has been proposed to measure this style.<ref>Arnold, Josh A., et al. "The empowering leadership questionnaire: The construction and validation of a new scale for measuring leader behaviors." Journal of Organizational Behavior (2000): 249-269. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3100332 JSTOR]</ref> The ELQ measures either categories:
 # Coaching
 # Informing. Examination of the 6 questions in this scale suggest informing here does not fit with information sharing as proposed by complexity science.
@@ Line 148: / Line 316: @@
 * Enabling
 * Burdening
+==Contingency or situational theories==
+In this approach, the role of the leader is contingent on the situation.
+This includes:
+* Tannenbaurm's and Schmidt's continuum introduced in 1958<ref>Tannenbaum, R. & Schmidt, W. (1958) “How to choose a leadership pattern” Harvard Business Review 36(2), pp.95-101</ref><ref>Tannenbaum, R. & Schmidt, W. (1973) “[https://hbr.org/1973/05/how-to-choose-a-leadership-pattern How to choose a leadership pattern]” Harvard Business Review 36(2), pp.95-101</ref>
+* Hersey's and Blanchard's situational leadership in 1969.<ref>Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). "[http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1970-19661-001 Life cycle theory of leadership]". Training and Development Journal. 23 (5): 26–34.</ref>
+* Vroon and Yetton's contingency model in 1973<ref>Vroom, Victor H.; Yetton, Phillip W. (1973). Leadership and Decision-Making. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. {{ISBN|0-8229-3266-0}}.</ref>
+* Heifetz's Adaptive leadership introduced in 1997<ref>Heifetz, R. A., & Laurie, D. L. (1997). "[https://hbr.org/2001/12/the-work-of-leadership The work of leadership]". Harvard business review, 75(1), 124. PMID [https://pubmed.gov/10174450 10174450]</ref>
 ==Modulators of impact of leadership styles==
 ===Characteristics of subordinates===
+Goal diversity of subordinates moderator relative effectiveness of leadership styles, "low authority differentiation is beneficial for teams homogeneous in goal orientations and detrimental for teams diverse in goal orientations."<ref name="Nederveen PieterseHollenbeck2019">{{cite journal|last1=Nederveen Pieterse|first1=Anne|last2=Hollenbeck|first2=John R.|last3=van Knippenberg|first3=Daan|last4=Spitzmüller|first4=Matthias|last5=Dimotakis|first5=Nikos|last6=Karam|first6=Elizabeth P.|last7=Sleesman|first7=Dustin J.|title=Hierarchical leadership versus self-management in teams: Goal orientation diversity as moderator of their relative effectiveness|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=30|issue=6|year=2019|pages=101343|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101343}}</ref>
 Regulatory fit theory has found<ref>Kruglanski, A. W., Pierro, A., & Higgins, E. T. (2007). Regulatory Mode and Preferred Leadership Styles: How Fit Increases Job Satisfaction. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(2), 137–149. {{doi|10.1080/01973530701331700}}</ref>:
 * Subordinates high in locomotion prefer leaders who have "'forceful' leadership style, represented by 'coercive', 'legitimate', and 'directive' kinds of strategic influence'
 * Subordinates high in assessment prefer leaders who have "'advisory' leadership style, represented by 'expert', 'referent', and 'participative' kinds of strategic influence'
+====Regulatory focus====
 Regulatory focus theory poses that people vary in their goals<ref>Brockner, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). [https://is.muni.cz/el/1421/jaro2009/PSB_01/um/na_4_5.pdf Regulatory Focus Theory: Implications for the Study of Emotions at Work]. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 86(1), 35–66. {{doi|10.1006/obhd.2001.2972}}</ref>:
 * Promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains
@@ Line 161: / Line 340: @@
 Focus may also predict jealousy and envy<ref>Andiappan, M., & Dufour, L. (2018). Jealousy at work: A tripartite model. Academy of Management Review. h{{doi|10.5465/amr.2016.0299}}</ref>.
-==Religion and faith in leadership==
+====Core-self evaluation====
-The role of religion and faith in leadership is being increasingly explored<ref>Miller, Kent. “Responding to Fundamentalism: Secularism or Humble Faith?” The Academy of Management Perspectives, Jan. 2018, p. amp.2017.0101. amp.aom.org, {{doi|10.5465/amp.2017.0101}}.</ref><ref>Neubert, Mitchell. “With or Without Spirit: Implications for Scholarship and Leadership.” The Academy of Management Perspectives, Mar. 2018, p. amp.2016.0172. amp.aom.org, {{doi|10.5465/amp.2016.0172}}</ref>.
+Core-self evaluation includes<ref name="JudgeBono2001">{{cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Bono|first2=Joyce E.|title=Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=86|issue=1|year=2001|pages=80–92|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80}}</ref>:
+* Self-esteem
+* Self-efficacy
+* Locus of control
+* Emotional stability (low neuroticism)
+Hypercore-self evaluation predicts job satisfaction and performance<ref name="JudgeBono2001">{{cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Bono|first2=Joyce E.|title=Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=86|issue=1|year=2001|pages=80–92|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80}}</ref>.
+===Characteristics of leaders===
+====Leaders'encoding processes====
+Leaders' encoding processes may be important<ref name="GottfredsonReina2019">{{cite journal|last1=Gottfredson|first1=Ryan K.|last2=Reina|first2=Christopher S.|title=Exploring why leaders do what they do: An integrative review of the situation-trait approach and situation-encoding schemas|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|year=2019|pages=101373|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101373}}</ref><ref>Gottfredson R, Reina C. To Be a Great Leader, You Need the Right Mindset. Harvard Business Review. 2020 Available at </ref>:
+* Mindsets: fixed and growth<ref name="Dweck1986">{{cite journal|last1=Dweck|first1=Carol S.|title=Motivational processes affecting learning.|journal=American Psychologist|volume=41|issue=10|year=1986|pages=1040–1048|issn=1935-990X|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040}}</ref><ref>Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballentine Books. {{ISBN|9780345472328 }}</ref>
+* Goal orientations
+* Mindsets: deliberative and implemental mindsets
+* Regulatory focus.
+Mindset interventions have been reviewed<ref name="RogersChristianJennings2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Rogers | first1 = Benjamin | last2 = Christian | first2 = Jessica | last3 = Jennings | first3 = Remy | last4 = Lanaj | first4 = Klodiana | title = The Growth Mindset at Work: Will Employees Help Others to Develop Themselves? | journal = Academy of Management Discoveries | date = 29 July 2022 | eissn = 2168-1007 | doi = 10.5465/amd.2021.0144 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
+====Learning-from-failure / optimism ====
+Leadership change behavior is key for post-failure success. This includes sensemaking and problem formulation and reformulation to fine innovation post-failure<ref name="Morais‐StorzNguyen2020">{{cite journal|last1=Morais‐Storz|first1=Marta|last2=Nguyen|first2=Nhien|last3=Sætre|first3=Alf Steinar|title=Post‐Failure Success: Sensemaking in Problem Representation Reformulation|journal=Journal of Product Innovation Management|volume=37|issue=6|year=2020|pages=483–505|issn=0737-6782|doi=10.1111/jpim.12552}}</ref>.
+Leader optimism is associated with performance and citizenship behavior<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5465/amj.2018.1282| issn = 0001-4273, 1948-0989| volume = 64| issue = 4| pages = 1265–1287| last1 = Hill| first1 = Edwyna T.| last2 = Matta| first2 = Fadel K.| last3 = Mitchell| first3 = Marie S.| title = Seeing the Glass as Half Full or Half Empty: The Role of Affect-induced Optimistic and Pessimistic States on Justice Perceptions and Outcomes| journal = Academy of Management Journal| accessdate = 2021-09-15| date = 2021-08| url = http://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amj.2018.1282}}</ref>.
+====Leader humility====
+Leaders who share criticism of themselves can increase the sense of psychological safety of their workforce<ref>Coutifaris, C. G. V., & Grant, A. M. (2021). Taking Your Team Behind the Curtain: The Effects of Leader Feedback-Sharing and Feedback-Seeking on Team Psychological Safety. Organization Science. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1498</ref>.
+Sharing personal stories may increase workforce trust in leaders via authenticity and empathy<ref>Storms, G. (2021, September 29). To Inspire Your Team, Share More of Yourself. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2021/09/to-inspire-your-team-share-more-of-yourself</ref>.
+====Leader narcissism====
+Leader narcissism may be harmful<ref>O’Reilly, C. A., Chatman, J. A., & Doerr, B. (2021). When “Me” Trumps “We”: Narcissistic Leaders and the Cultures They Create. Academy of Management Discoveries, 7(3), 419–450. https://doi.org/10.5465/amd.2019.0163</ref>.
+====Leader information sharing====
+In general, leaders do not share enough informatoin<ref name="FlynnLide2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Flynn | first1 = Francis J | last2 = Lide | first2 = Chelsea R | title = Communication Miscalibration: The Price Leaders Pay for Not Sharing Enough | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = 25 July 2022 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2021.0245 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
+===Leaders' work load===
+Executive job demands may hinder innovation<ref name="ZhuJia2021">{{cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=David H.|last2=Jia|first2=Liangding|last3=Li|first3=Fei|title=Too Much on the Plate? How Executive Job Demands Harm Firm Innovation and Reduce Share of Exploratory Innovations|journal=Academy of Management Journal|year=2021|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2019.0334}}</ref>.
+==Complexity leadership theory==
+Complexity leadership theory, as originally described by Uhl-Bien, contains:<ref name="Uhl-Bien, 2007">{{cite journal | last=Uhl-Bien | first=Mary | last2=Marion | first2=Russ | last3=McKelvey | first3=Bill | title=Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era | journal=The Leadership Quarterly | volume=18 | issue=4 | date=2007 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002 | pages=298–318}}</ref>
+* Entrepreneurial leadership for exploration<ref name="Uhl-Bien, 2018">{{cite journal | last=Uhl-Bien | first=Mary | last2=Arena | first2=Michael | title=Leadership for organizational adaptability: A theoretical synthesis and integrative framework | journal=The Leadership Quarterly | volume=29 | issue=1 | date=2018 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009 | pages=89–104}}</ref>. Uhl-Bien originally labeled this as adaptive leadership<ref name="Uhl-Bien, 2007"/>.
+* Operational leadership for exploitation<ref name="Uhl-Bien, 2018"/>. Uhl-Bien originally labeled this as administrative leadership<ref name="Uhl-Bien, 2007"/>.
+* Enabling leadership is for "creating, engaging and protecting 'adaptive space' needed to nurture and sustain the adaptability process in organizations" and sits between Entrepreneurial and Operational needs
+Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory<ref name="Uhl-Bien,Arena.2017">Uhl-Bien, Mary, and Michael Arena. 2017. “Complexity Leadership: Enabling People and Organizations for Adaptability.” Organizational Dynamics 46 (1): 9–20. {{doi|10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.12.001}}</ref>.
+Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for health care organization since early this century.<ref name="pmid10710732">{{cite journal| author=Anderson RA, McDaniel RR| title=Managing health care organizations: where professionalism meets complexity science. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2000 | volume= 25 | issue= 1 | pages= 83-92 | pmid=10710732 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10710732  }} </ref><ref>Plsek, Paul. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/13 "Redesigning health care with insights from the science of complex  systems."] Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century (2001): 309-322.</ref>
+Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for Learning Health Systems<ref name="PottsThompson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Potts|first1=Jennifer|last2=Thompson|first2=Randy|last3=Merchant|first3=Robert|last4=Ciemins|first4=Elizabeth L.|last5=Bush|first5=Roger W.|last6=Anderson|first6=Ruth A.|last7=Lindberg|first7=Curt|title=Learning: Contemplating the unexamined core of Learning Health Systems|journal=Learning Health Systems|volume=1|issue=4|year=2017|pages=e10036|issn=23796146|doi=10.1002/lrh2.10036}}</ref>.
-==Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation ==
+Complexity leadership has been criticized for explaining organizational behavior rather than managing organizations<ref name="pmid30709082">{{cite journal| author=Belrhiti Z, Nebot Giralt A, Marchal B| title=Complex Leadership in Healthcare: A Scoping Review. | journal=Int J Health Policy Manag | year= 2018 | volume= 7 | issue= 12 | pages= 1073-1084 | pmid=30709082 | doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2018.75 | pmc=6358662 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30709082  }} </ref>.
-(see enabling leadership above)
-Innovation can be classified as<ref name="Jasimuddin2018">Jasimuddin, S. M., & Naqshbandi, M. M. (2018). Knowledge-oriented leadership and open innovation: Role of knowledge management capability in France-based multinationals. International Business Review. {{doi|10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.12.001}}</ref><ref>Chesbrough, H. (2003). The logic of open innovation: managing intellectual property. California Management Review, 45(3), 33-58. {{doi|10.2307/41166175}}</ref>:
-* "Inbound OI involves identifying and acquiring knowledge from external sources"
-* "Outbound OI involves exploitation of a firm’s knowledge and technology through commercialization in the external market"
-Organizational cultural influences on innovation has been [[systematic review|systematically reviewed]]<ref>Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. {doi|10.1111/1467-8551.00375}}</ref>. Cultural attributes include:
+Complexity leadership theory has varying descriptions of the metatheme of leadership (see table).
-* Learning  culture
+{| class="wikitable"
-* Adhocracy culture
-* Clan rather than hierarchical culture
-* Low power distance culture
-Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for health care organization since early this century.<ref name="pmid10710732">{{cite journal| author=Anderson RA, McDaniel RR| title=Managing health care organizations: where professionalism meets complexity science. | journal=Health Care Manage Rev | year= 2000 | volume= 25 | issue= 1 | pages= 83-92 | pmid=10710732 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10710732  }} </ref><ref>Plsek, Paul. [https://www.nap.edu/read/10027/chapter/13 "Redesigning health care with insights from the science of complex adaptive systems."] Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century (2001): 309-322.</ref>
+|+ Leadership metathemes described by complexity leadership and their mapping to Bass and Bass leadership framework
-Complexity leadership theory describes three forms of leadership<ref name="doi10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002">Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.{{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002}}</ref>:
+! Bass & Bass framework<ref>Bass, B. J., & Bass, R. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, & managerial implications (4th ed.). New York, NY: Free
-* Adaptive leadership
+Press. {{ISBN|978-0743215527}}</ref>
-* Administrative leadership
+! Uhl-Bien and Arena, 2018<ref name="Uhl-BienArena2018">{{cite journal|last1=Uhl-Bien|first1=Mary|last2=Arena|first2=Michael|title=Leadership for organizational adaptability: A theoretical synthesis and integrative framework|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=29|issue=1|year=2018|pages=89–104|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009}}</ref>
-* Enabling leadership
+! Hazy and Pottras, 2018<ref name="Hazy,Pottras.2018"/><ref name="Hazy,Uhl-Bien.2015"/>
+|-
+|style="font-weight:bold;" |Change leadership
+| Entrepreneurial leadership<br/>(formerly called Administrative leadership<ref name="doi10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002">Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.{{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002}}</ref>)
+| Generative (information gathering/generative/ functions): "interactions are intended to respond to emerging changes and risks by exploring the ecosystem and creating optionality"
+|-
+|
+| Enabling leadership<br/>(details below<ref name="Uhl-Bien,Arena.2017"/>)
+|
+|-
+|style="font-weight:bold;" |Task leadership
+| Operational leadership<br/>(formerly called Administrative leadership<ref name="doi10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002">Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18(4), 298–318.{{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002}}</ref>)
+| Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions): "interactions are intended to exploit present opportunities to acquire resources in the ecosystem and maximize return on assets"
+|-
+|style="font-weight:bold;" |Relational leadership
+|
+| Community building
+|}
 Anderson and McDaniel proposed in 2000 that key leadership tasks are<ref name="pmid10710732"/><ref name="pmid11576986">{{cite journal| author=Plsek PE, Wilson T| title=Complexity, leadership, and management in healthcare organisations. | journal=BMJ | year= 2001 | volume= 323 | issue= 7315 | pages= 746-9 | pmid=11576986 | doi= | pmc=1121291 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11576986  }} </ref>:
@@ Line 197: / Line 436: @@
 A model of of learning based on complexity science has been developed.<ref>Lanham, Holly Jordan, et al. "Trust and reflection in primary care practice redesign." Health services research 51.4 (2016): 1489-1514. {{doi|10.1111/1475-6773.12415}}</ref>
-Complexity Leadership Theory, also called Complex systems leadership theory, was proposed in 2006.<ref>Lichtenstein, Benyamin B., et al. [http://works.bepress.com/benyamin_lichtenstein_umb/3/  "Complexity leadership theory: An interactive perspective on leading in complex adaptive systems."] (2006)</ref><ref>Uhl-Bien, Mary, Russ Marion, and Bill McKelvey. "Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era." The leadership quarterly 18.4 (2007): 298-318. {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002}}</ref><ref>Hazy, James K., and Mary Uhl-Bien. "Changing the rules: The implications of complexity science for leadership research and practice." Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (2013) {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.033}}</ref> Based on this theory, Hazy has proposed leadership skills similar to Anderson and McDaniel:<ref>Hazy, James K., and Mary Uhl-Bien. "Towards operationalizing complexity leadership: How generative, administrative and community-building leadership practices enact organizational outcomes." Leadership 11.1 (2015): 79-104. {{doi|10.1177/1742715013511483}}</ref>
+Complexity Leadership Theory, also called Complex systems leadership theory, was proposed in 2006.<ref>Lichtenstein, Benyamin B., et al. [http://works.bepress.com/benyamin_lichtenstein_umb/3/  "Complexity leadership theory: An interactive perspective on leading in complex  systems."] (2006)</ref><ref>Uhl-Bien, Mary, Russ Marion, and Bill McKelvey. "Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era." The leadership quarterly 18.4 (2007): 298-318. {{doi|10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.002}}</ref><ref>Hazy, James K., and Mary Uhl-Bien. "Changing the rules: The implications of complexity science for leadership research and practice." Oxford handbook of leadership and organizations (2013) {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.033}}</ref> Based on this theory, Hazy has proposed leadership skills similar to Anderson and McDaniel:<ref name="Hazy,Uhl-Bien.2015">Hazy, James K., and Mary Uhl-Bien. "Towards operationalizing complexity leadership: How generative, administrative and community-building leadership practices enact organizational outcomes." Leadership 11.1 (2015): 79-104. {{doi|10.1177/1742715013511483}}</ref>
-# Generative
+# Generative (information gathering/generative/ functions)
-# Administrative
+# Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions)
 # Community-building
 # Information gathering
 # Information using (such as [[positive feedback|positive]] and [[negative feedback]])
-Uhl-Bien has proposed that tasks of enabling leadership, which is an outgrowth of complexity leadership are<ref>Uhl-Bien, M., & Arena, M. (2017). Complexity leadership: Enabling people and organizations for adaptability. Organizational Dynamics, 46(1), 9–20. {{doi|10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.12.001}}</ref>:
+Uhl-Bien has proposed that tasks of enabling leadership, which is an outgrowth of complexity leadership are<ref name="Uhl-Bien,Arena.2017">Uhl-Bien, M., & Arena, M. (2017). Complexity leadership: Enabling people and organizations for adaptability. Organizational Dynamics, 46(1), 9–20. {{doi|10.1016/j.orgdyn.2016.12.001}}</ref>:
 * Brokerage - fostering of ideas that are triggered at the intersection of networks
-* Leveraging Adaptive Tension
+* Leveraging  Tension
 * Linking Up - "Creating or energizing network connections that enable information flows, or amplify movements, to feed and fuel emergence."
 * Tags and Attractors - "Listening for language (messages, stories) and symbols (pictures, objects) that ‘stick’ in a system and attract energy & using them to create tags to amplify and channel emergence"
 * Simple Rules
 * Network Closure
@@ Line 216: / Line 453: @@
 Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with [[open book management]].
-Complexity Leadership Theory may be seen as an evolution of Heifetz's adaptive leadership<ref>Lichtenstein, B. B., Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., Seers, A., Orton, J. D., & Schreiber, C. (2006). Complexity leadership theory: An interactive perspective on leading in complex adaptive systems. Available at https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=managementfacpub</ref>
+Complexity leadership is consistent with [[positive deviance]]<ref name="pmid30709082">{{cite journal| author=Belrhiti Z, Nebot Giralt A, Marchal B| title=Complex Leadership in Healthcare: A Scoping Review. | journal=Int J Health Policy Manag | year= 2018 | volume= 7 | issue= 12 | pages= 1073-1084 | pmid=30709082 | doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2018.75 | pmc=6358662 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30709082  }} </ref>.
+Complexity Leadership Theory may be seen as an evolution of Heifetz's adaptive leadershi<ref name="Uhl-BienArena2018">{{cite journal|last1=Uhl-Bien|first1=Mary|last2=Arena|first2=Michael|title=Leadership for organizational adaptability: A theoretical synthesis and integrative framework|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=29|issue=1|year=2018|pages=89–104|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.009}}</ref><ref>Lichtenstein, B. B., Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R., Seers, A., Orton, J. D., & Schreiber, C. (2006). Complexity leadership theory: An interactive perspective on leading in complex  systems. Available at https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=managementfacpub</ref>
+Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with knowledge-oriented leadership, which is defined as "an attitude or action, observed or imputed, that prompts the creation, sharing, and utilization of new knowledge in a way that seems to bring a shift in thinking and collective outcomes."<ref name="Jasimuddin2018">Jasimuddin, S. M., & Naqshbandi, M. M. (2018). Knowledge-oriented leadership and open innovation: Role of knowledge management capability in France-based multinationals. International Business Review. {{doi|10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.12.001}}</ref>
+===Implementations===
+====Agile and constructive deviance====
+Constructive deviations are "ad hoc experiments performed with the intention of achieving some purpose; this idea is distinct from the notion of “positive deviance” which is a post hoc analysis and intervention technique used to identify positively performing subgroups (outliers) in populations facing many of the same challenges"<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 1st| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-975561-5| pages = 709–732| editors = David Day (ed.)| last1 = Hazy| first1 = James K| last2 = Uhl-Bien| first2 = Mary| title = The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations| chapter = Changing the rules: The implications of complexity science for leadership research and practice| location = New York| date = 2014}}</ref>.
+Agile coaches are consistent with complexity leadership theory and enabling leadership<ref name="Bäcklander2019">{{cite journal|last1=Bäcklander|first1=Gisela|title=Doing complexity leadership theory: How agile coaches at Spotify practise enabling leadership|journal=Creativity and Innovation Management|volume=28|issue=1|year=2019|pages=42–60|issn=09631690|doi=10.1111/caim.12303}}</ref>.
+====Fractal====
+Fractal organization is consistent with complexity leadership and includes<ref name="pmid25241601">{{cite journal| author=Pronovost PJ, Marsteller JA| title=Creating a fractal-based quality management infrastructure. | journal=J Health Organ Manag | year= 2014 | volume= 28 | issue= 4 | pages= 576-86 | pmid=25241601 | doi=10.1108/jhom-11-2013-0262 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25241601  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26826071">{{cite journal| author=Kravet SJ, Bailey J, Demski R, Pronovost P| title=Establishing an Ambulatory Medicine Quality and Safety Oversight Structure: Leveraging the Fractal Model. | journal=Acad Med | year= 2016 | volume= 91 | issue= 7 | pages= 962-6 | pmid=26826071 | doi=10.1097/ACM.0000000000001102 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26826071  }} </ref>:
+==== Normalization Process Theory (NPT) ====
+The Normalization Process Theory (NPT) addresses the implementation of innovations in complex organizations and is consistent with complexity leadership theory<ref name="pmid38440078">{{cite journal| author=Nordin HMA, Mathisen GE, Rørtveit K, Joa I, Johannessen JO, Ruud T | display-authors=etal| title=Implementing Clinical Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychosis: The Frontline Leaders' Point of View. A Qualitative Study. | journal=J Healthc Leadersh | year= 2024 | volume= 16 | issue=  | pages= 93-104 | pmid=38440078 | doi=10.2147/JHL.S430285 | pmc=10910968 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=38440078  }} </ref>. NPT has four constructs<ref name="pmid35193611">{{cite journal| author=May CR, Albers B, Bracher M, Finch TL, Gilbert A, Girling M | display-authors=etal| title=Translational framework for implementation evaluation and research: a normalisation process theory coding manual for qualitative research and instrument development. | journal=Implement Sci | year= 2022 | volume= 17 | issue= 1 | pages= 19 | pmid=35193611 | doi=10.1186/s13012-022-01191-x | pmc=8861599 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=35193611  }} </ref>
+# Coherence. "How do people work together to understand and plan the activities that need to be accomplished to put an intervention and its components into practice?"<ref name="pmid35193611"/>
+# Cognitive participation. "How do people work together to create networks of participation and communities of practice around interventions and their components?"<ref name="pmid35193611"/>
+# Collective action. "How do people work together to enact interventions and their components?"<ref name="pmid35193611"/>
+# Reflexive monitoring. "How do people work together to appraise interventions and their components?"<ref name="pmid35193611"/>
+====Positive deviance====
+{{main|Positive deviance}}
+Positive deviance is consistent with complexity leadership theory<ref name="pmid30709082">{{cite journal| author=Belrhiti Z, Nebot Giralt A, Marchal B| title=Complex Leadership in Healthcare: A Scoping Review. | journal=Int J Health Policy Manag | year= 2018 | volume= 7 | issue= 12 | pages= 1073-1084 | pmid=30709082 | doi=10.15171/ijhpm.2018.75 | pmc=6358662 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30709082  }} </ref><ref name="LindbergClancy2010">{{cite journal|last1=Lindberg|first1=Curt|last2=Clancy|first2=Thomas R.|title=Positive Deviance|journal=JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration|volume=40|issue=4|year=2010|pages=150–153|issn=0002-0443|doi=10.1097/NNA.0b013e3181d40e39}}</ref><ref name="LindbergSchneider2013">{{cite journal|last1=Lindberg|first1=Curt|last2=Schneider|first2=Marguerite|title=Combating infections at Maine Medical Center: Insights into complexity-informed leadership from positive deviance|journal=Leadership|volume=9|issue=2|year=2013|pages=229–253|issn=1742-7150|doi=10.1177/1742715012468784}}</ref> and [[learning health system]]s<ref name="pmid30398449">{{cite journal| author=McLachlan S, Potts HWW, Dube K, Buchanan D, Lean S, Gallagher T | display-authors=etal| title=The Heimdall Framework for Supporting Characterisation of Learning Health Systems. | journal=J Innov Health Inform | year= 2018 | volume= 25 | issue= 2 | pages= 77-87 | pmid=30398449 | doi=10.14236/jhi.v25i2.996 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30398449  }} </ref>.
+===Measurement===
+Complexity Leadership tactics can be measured with 3 concepts<ref name="Jasimuddin2018">Jasimuddin, S. M., & Naqshbandi, M. M. (2018). Knowledge-oriented leadership and open innovation: Role of knowledge management capability in France-based multinationals. International Business Review. {{doi|10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.12.001}}</ref>:
-Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with knowledge-oriented leadership, which is defined as "an attitude or action, observed or imputed, that prompts the creation, sharing, and utilization of new knowledge in a way that seems to bring a shift in thinking and collective outcomes."<ref name="Jasimuddin2018">Jasimuddin, S. M., & Naqshbandi, M. M. (2018). Knowledge-oriented leadership and open innovation: Role of knowledge management capability in France-based multinationals. International Business Review. {{doi|10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.12.001}}</ref> These leadership tactics can be measured with 3 concepts:
 * Knowledge-oriented Leadership
-* Knowledge Management Capability (technological, structural, cultural, application, acqusition, sharing)
+* Knowledge Management Capability (technological, structural, cultural, application, acquisition, sharing)
 ** Example: cultural (highest loading questions):
 *** My organization takes advantage of new knowledge.
@@ Line 226: / Line 490: @@
 *** My organization quickly links sources of knowledge in solving problems.
 * Open Innovation
+Another survey has been proposed and construct validated. The instrument consists of 10 items in 2 scales<ref name="Hazy,Pottras.2018">Hazy, J. K., & Prottas, D. J. (2018). [https://search.proquest.com/docview/2186486744 Complexity Leadership: Construct Validation of an Instrument to Assess Generative and Administrative Leadership Modes]. Journal of Managerial Issues, 30(3), 325.</ref>. Response format asks frequency that employees observe leadership tactics with Likert responses ranging from 'Never' to an average of daily:
+* Generative (information gathering). Hazy also describes this as "Resilience Leadership Mode...to address risk (variance) by promoting the value potential of optionality"<ref name="Hazy,Prottas.2017">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.5465/AMBPP.2017.11352abstract| issn = 0065-0668| volume = 2017| issue = 1| pages = 11352| last1 = Hazy| first1 = Jim| last2 = Prottas| first2 = David| title = How Complexity Leadership Enables Both Organizational Efficacy and Resilience| journal = Academy of Management Proceedings| accessdate = 2019-03-03| date = 2017-08-01| url = https://journals.aom.org/doi/abs/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.11352abstract}}</ref>
+** Supporting difference of opinion
+** Providing resources and time to try new things
+** Encouraging learning visits to other organizations
+** Encouraging new approaches
+** Forgiving failure
+* Administrative (information using). Hazy also describes this as "Effectiveness Leadership Mode...to maximize return (expected value) by driving the potential value of efficient operations"<ref name="Hazy,Prottas.2017"/>
+** Driving accountability
+** Setting objective metrics of success or failure
+** Quieting voices which distract from the purpose
+** Asking people to invest more time and energy
+** Establishing specific targets and deliverables.
+Practice  Reserve (PAR) can be measured<ref name="pmid20530398">{{cite journal| author=Jaén CR, Crabtree BF, Palmer RF, Ferrer RL, Nutting PA, Miller WL et al.| title=Methods for evaluating practice change toward a patient-centered medical home. | journal=Ann Fam Med | year= 2010 | volume= 8 Suppl 1 | issue=  | pages= S9-20; S92 | pmid=20530398 | doi=10.1370/afm.1108 | pmc=2885721 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20530398  }} </ref>.
+Reciprocal learning may be measured<ref name="pmid21345225">{{cite journal| author=Leykum LK, Palmer R, Lanham H, Jordan M, McDaniel RR, Noël PH et al.| title=Reciprocal learning and chronic care model implementation in primary care: results from a new scale of learning in primary care. | journal=BMC Health Serv Res | year= 2011 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 44 | pmid=21345225 | doi=10.1186/1472-6963-11-44 | pmc=3050698 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21345225  }} </ref>.
+===Compoenents of complexity leadership===
+====Community building / networking / linking up====
+"Network leaders engage in brokering connections across the network of jazz musicians; or building status through connections to central people," the latter may be more important<ref name="van den BornMehraKilduff2022">{{cite journal | last1 = van den Born | first1 = Floor | last2 = Mehra | first2 = Ajay | last3 = Kilduff | first3 = Martin | title = Network Leadership and Team Creativity: An Exploratory Study of New York City Jazz Bands | journal = Academy of Management Discoveries | date = 25 July 2022 | eissn = 2168-1007 | doi = 10.5465/amd.2021.0092 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
+====Sensemaking====
+Sensemaking includes semantic sensemaking<ref name="RerupGioiaCorley2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Rerup | first1 = Claus | last2 = Gioia | first2 = Denny | last3 = Corley | first3 = Kevin | title = Identity Transitions via Subtle Adaptive Sensemaking: The Empirical Pursuit of the Intangible | journal = Academy of Management Discoveries | date = 15 July 2022 | eissn = 2168-1007 | doi = 10.5465/amd.2019.0212 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
+== Persuasion and issue selling ==
+Aristotle's rhetoric can be a framework for persuasion<ref name="HoeferGreen2016">{{cite journal|last1=Hoefer|first1=Rolf L.|last2=Green|first2=Sandy E.|title=A Rhetorical Model of Institutional Decision Making: The Role of Rhetoric in the Formation and Change of Legitimacy Judgments|journal=Academy of Management Review|volume=41|issue=1|year=2016|pages=130–150|issn=0363-7425|doi=10.5465/amr.2014.0330}}</ref><ref name="Braet1992">{{cite journal|last1=Braet|first1=Antoine C.|title=Ethos, pathos and logos in Aristotle's Rhetoric: A re-examination|journal=Argumentation|volume=6|issue=3|year=1992|pages=307–320|issn=0920-427X|doi=10.1007/BF00154696}}</ref><ref name="Varpio2018">{{cite journal|last1=Varpio|first1=Lara|title=Using rhetorical appeals to credibility, logic, and emotions to increase your persuasiveness|journal=Perspectives on Medical Education|volume=7|issue=3|year=2018|pages=207–210|issn=2212-2761|doi=10.1007/s40037-018-0420-2}}</ref> Green proposes<ref name="Green2004">{{cite journal|last1=Green|first1=Sandy Edward|title=A Rhetorical Theory of Diffusion|journal=Academy of Management Review|volume=29|issue=4|year=2004|pages=653–669|issn=0363-7425|doi=10.5465/amr.2004.14497653}}</ref>:
+* "a rhetorical sequence that starts with pathos, moves to logos, and ends with ethos will have a rapid rate of initial adoption, a broad diffusion, and a slow abandonment"
+* "pathos may initiate change, logos implement it, and ethos sustain it"
+Issue selling has been studied by Dutton and Ashford<ref name="DuttonAshford1993">{{cite journal|last1=Dutton|first1=Jane E.|last2=Ashford|first2=Susan J.|title=SELLING ISSUES TO TOP MANAGEMENT|journal=Academy of Management Review|volume=18|issue=3|year=1993|pages=397–428|issn=0363-7425|doi=10.5465/amr.1993.9309035145}}</ref><ref name="DuttonAshford2001">{{cite journal|last1=Dutton|first1=Jane E.|last2=Ashford|first2=Susan J.|last3=O'Neill|first3=Regina M.|last4=Lawrence|first4=Katherine A.|title=Moves that Matter: Issue Selling and Organizational Change|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=44|issue=4|year=2001|pages=716–736|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/3069412}}</ref> and updated by Lu<ref name="LuBartol2019">{{cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=Shuye|last2=Bartol|first2=Kathryn M.|last3=Venkataramani|first3=Vijaya|last4=Zheng|first4=Xiaoming|last5=Liu|first5=Xin|title=Pitching Novel Ideas to the Boss: The Interactive Effects of Employees’ Idea Enactment and Influence Tactics on Creativity Assessment and Implementation|journal=Academy of Management Journal|volume=62|issue=2|year=2019|pages=579–606|issn=0001-4273|doi=10.5465/amj.2016.0942}}</ref> Lu proposes the use of:
+* Influence tactics
+** Rational persuasion, for example, “Use facts and logic to try to make a persuasive case for your proposed idea”
+** Inspirational appeal, for example, “Say your proposed idea is an opportunity to do something really exciting and worthwhile”
+** Consultation, for example, “Ask your supervisor to suggest how you could make your idea more helpful to him or her with a task or problem”
+** Collaboration, for example, “Offer to provide any assistance the supervisor would need to make the idea happen”
+* Enactment behaviors
+** Drawings: “Illustrate the idea through such means as written descriptions, PowerPoint presentations, drawings, or storyboards”
+** Enacting: “Conduct a pilot or simulation to show how the idea could work”
+** Prototypes: “Develop a prototype or other sample to demonstrate the value of the idea.”
+.
+.
+==Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation ==
+(see enabling leadership and complexity leadership above)
+Innovation can be classified as<ref name="Jasimuddin2018">Jasimuddin, S. M., & Naqshbandi, M. M. (2018). Knowledge-oriented leadership and open innovation: Role of knowledge management capability in France-based multinationals. International Business Review. {{doi|10.1016/j.ibusrev.2017.12.001}}</ref><ref>Chesbrough, H. (2003). The logic of open innovation: managing intellectual property. California Management Review, 45(3), 33-58. {{doi|10.2307/41166175}}</ref>:
+* "Inbound OI involves identifying and acquiring knowledge from external sources"
+* "Outbound OI involves exploitation of a firm’s knowledge and technology through commercialization in the external market"
+Organizational cultural influences on innovation has been [[systematic review|systematically reviewed]]<ref>Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. {doi|10.1111/1467-8551.00375}}</ref>. Cultural attributes include:
+* Learning  culture
+* Adhocracy culture
+* Clan rather than hierarchical culture
+* Low power distance culture
+Once tactic to foster innovation is to concentrate on lead users<ref name="von Hippel1986">{{cite journal|last1=von Hippel|first1=Eric|title=Lead Users: A Source of Novel Product Concepts|journal=Management Science|volume=32|issue=7|year=1986|pages=791–805|issn=0025-1909|doi=10.1287/mnsc.32.7.791}}</ref>
+.
+==Religion and faith in leadership==
+The role of religion and faith in leadership is being increasingly explored<ref>Miller, Kent. “Responding to Fundamentalism: Secularism or Humble Faith?” The Academy of Management Perspectives, Jan. 2018, p. amp.2017.0101. amp.aom.org, {{doi|10.5465/amp.2017.0101}}.</ref><ref>Neubert, Mitchell. “With or Without Spirit: Implications for Scholarship and Leadership.” The Academy of Management Perspectives, Mar. 2018, p. amp.2016.0172. amp.aom.org, {{doi|10.5465/amp.2016.0172}}</ref>.
+The Bhagavad Gita may inform positive leadership<ref name="Chow2019">{{cite journal|last1=Chow|first1=Charles|title=Karma Yoga: Application of Gita (2:47) for Superior Business Performance During Industry 4.0|year=2019|pages=103–135|issn=2524-6070|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-99611-0_6}}</ref>
+, especially [https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org/chapter/2/verse/47 verse 2:47].
+Religiosity may widen gender pay gaps<ref name="SitzmannCampbell2021">{{cite journal | last1 = Sitzmann | first1 = Traci | last2 = Campbell | first2 = Elizabeth M. | title = The Hidden Cost of Prayer: Religiosity and the Gender Wage Gap | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = August 2021 | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 1016–1048 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2019.1254 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
+== Comparison of leadership approaches==
+Directive leadership and hierarchy may help in the short run, but harm in the long run<ref name="MatusikMitchellHays2022">{{cite journal | last1 = Matusik | first1 = James G. | last2 = Mitchell | first2 = Rebecca L. | last3 = Hays | first3 = Nicholas A. | last4 = Fath | first4 = Sean | last5 = Hollenbeck | first5 = John R. | title = The Highs and Lows of Hierarchy in Multiteam Systems | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = October 2022 | volume = 65 | issue = 5 | pages = 1571–1592 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2020.0369 | pmid = | url = }}</ref><ref name="LorinkovaPearsallSims2013">{{cite journal | last1 = Lorinkova | first1 = Natalia M. | last2 = Pearsall | first2 = Matthew J. | last3 = Sims | first3 = Henry P. | title = Examining the Differential Longitudinal Performance of Directive versus Empowering Leadership in Teams | journal = Academy of Management Journal | date = April 2013 | volume = 56 | issue = 2 | pages = 573–596 | issn = 0001-4273 | eissn = 1948-0989 | doi = 10.5465/amj.2011.0132 | pmid = | url = }}</ref>.
 ==Complications of leadership==
 Power may lead cerebral changes in those given power<ref name="pmid23815455">{{cite journal| author=Hogeveen J, Inzlicht M, Obhi SS| title=Power changes how the brain responds to others. | journal=J Exp Psychol Gen | year= 2014 | volume= 143 | issue= 2 | pages= 755-62 | pmid=23815455 | doi=10.1037/a0033477 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23815455  }} </ref>. This may lead to hubristic syndrome<ref name="pmid19213778">{{cite journal| author=Owen D, Davidson J| title=Hubris syndrome: an acquired personality disorder? A study of US Presidents and UK Prime Ministers over the last 100 years. | journal=Brain | year= 2009 | volume= 132 | issue= Pt 5 | pages= 1396-406 | pmid=19213778 | doi=10.1093/brain/awp008 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19213778  }} </ref>
+The Earned Dogmatism Effect may lead to close-mindedness<ref>Ottati, Victor, Erika D. Price, Chase Wilson, and Nathanael Sumaktoyo. 2015. “When Self-Perceptions of Expertise Increase Closed-Minded Cognition: The Earned Dogmatism Effect.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 61 (November): 131–38. {{doi|10.1016/j.jesp.2015.08.003}}</ref>.
+===Employee turnover===
+Leadership affects employee turnover<ref name="HuBentler1999">{{cite journal|last1=Hu|first1=Li‐tze|last2=Bentler|first2=Peter M.|title=Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives|journal=Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal|volume=6|issue=1|year=1999|pages=1–55|issn=1070-5511|doi=10.1080/10705519909540118}}</ref>
 .
+Rates of employee turnover, especially voluntary turnover, affects organizational performance<ref name="pmid23244224">{{cite journal| author=Park TY, Shaw JD| title=Turnover rates and organizational performance: a meta-analysis. | journal=J Appl Psychol | year= 2013 | volume= 98 | issue= 2 | pages= 268-309 | pmid=23244224 | doi=10.1037/a0030723 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23244224  }} </ref>.
 == See also ==
 * [[Industrial and organizational psychology]]
+== Links ==
+* [https://www.cebma.org/ Center for Evidence-Based Management] (https://www.cebma.org/ or http://www.evidence-basedmanagement.com/)
 ==References==

Leadership: Difference between revisions

Latest revision as of 02:31, 27 September 2024

Leadership vs management

Informal leadership

Evidence-based management

Barriers within leaders

Selection and development of leaders

Self-selection reasons

Evolutionary biology

Charisma

Gender

Personality traits

Dunning-Kruger effect

Core-self evaluation

Humility

Masters in Business Administration

Leadership training

Leadership styles related to worksite climate

Laissez-faire

Transactional

Management by exception: active

Management by exception: passive

Outcomes of transactional leadership

Transformational

Measurement

Enabling or Empowering leadership

Impact

Measuring empowerment

Benefits

Harm

Contingency or situational theories

Modulators of impact of leadership styles

Characteristics of subordinates

Regulatory focus

Core-self evaluation

Characteristics of leaders

Leaders'encoding processes

Learning-from-failure / optimism

Leader humility

Leader narcissism

Leader information sharing

Leaders' work load

Complexity leadership theory

Implementations

Agile and constructive deviance

Fractal

Normalization Process Theory (NPT)

Positive deviance

Measurement

Compoenents of complexity leadership

Community building / networking / linking up

Sensemaking

Persuasion and issue selling

Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation

Religion and faith in leadership

Comparison of leadership approaches

Complications of leadership

Employee turnover

See also

Links

References

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