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| :''For other uses of the term "hypoxia", see [[hypoxia]].''
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| {{Infobox Disease | | | {{Infobox Disease | |
| Name = Cerebral hypoxia | | | Name = Cerebral hypoxia | |
| Image = | | | Image = Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-002.jpg| |
| Caption = | | | Caption = Diffuse hypoxic ischemia. <br> [http://www.radswiki.net Image courtesy of RadsWiki]| |
| DiseasesDB = |
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| ICD10 = |
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| ICD9 = {{ICD9|437.9}} |
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| eMedicineSubj = |
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| MeshID = D002534 |
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| }} | | }} |
| {{SI}} | | {{Cerebral hypoxia}} |
| {{CMG}} | | {{CMG}} |
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| {{EH}}
| | '''For patient information, click [[Cerebral hypoxia (patient information)|here]].''' |
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| ==Overview==
| | {{SK}} Hypoxic encephalopathy; anoxic encephalopathy |
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| '''Cerebral hypoxia''' refers to deprivation of [[oxygen]] supply to brain tissue. Mild or moderate cerebral hypoxia is sometimes known as '''diffuse cerebral hypoxia'''. It can cause confusion and fainting, but its effects are reversible. Total deprivation of oxygen to the brain is called '''cerebral anoxia'''. Extended periods of cerebral hypoxia can lead to brain death or permanent brain damage.
| | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia overview|Overview]]== |
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| Most cases of cerebral hypoxia are caused by a sudden change in brain oxygen levels. The body can normally respond to mild gradual changes in blood oxygen with little or no noticeable effect on brain function. The [[Effects of high altitude on humans|acclimatization process]] used by high altitude climbers is an example of such adjustment.
| | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
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| The presence of cerebral hypoxia symptoms indicates that the brain has been overwhelmed by a change in its oxygen supply. Consequently, even mild symptoms of cerebral hypoxia require immediate medical attention.
| | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia classification|Classification]]== |
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| == Classification == | | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
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| Cerebral hypoxia is typically grouped into four categories depending on the severity and location of the brain’s oxygen deprivation:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.answers.com/topic/hypoxia | title = Hypoxia | work = The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders | publisher = The Gale Group, Inc | year = 2005}} Retrieved on 2007-04-13 from Answers.com.</ref> | | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia causes|Causes]]== |
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| <ul>
| | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia differential diagnosis|Differentiating Cerebral hypoxia from other Diseases]]== |
| <li>'''Diffuse cerebral hypoxia'''. A mild to moderate impairment of brain function due to low oxygen levels in the blood.</li>
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| <li>'''Focal cerebral ischemia'''. A small localized reduction in the flow of oxygen from the blood to the brain. Damage to neurons is usually irreversible. Mild strokes.</li>
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| <li>'''Cerebral infarction'''. A complete stoppage of the flow of oxygen from the blood to a region of the brain. Significant irreversible brain damage occurs in the region around the blockage. Major strokes are an example of cerebral infarction.</li>
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| <li>'''Global cerebral ischemia'''. A complete stoppage of blood flow to the brain.</li>
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| </ul>
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| Cerebral hypoxia can also be classified by the cause of the reduced brain oxygen:<ref>{{cite web | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20030921221421/http://www.graylab.ac.uk/groups/advtec/hypoxia/hypoxia2.html | title = What is Hypoxia? | date = August 1, 1999 | publisher = Gray Laboratory Cancer Research Trust}} Retrieved on 2007-04-13 from Archive.org.</ref> | | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
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| <ul>
| | ==[[Cerebral hypoxia natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
| <li>'''[[Hypoxic hypoxia]]'''. Limited oxygen in the environment causes reduced brain function. Divers, aviators,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.safetycenter.navy.mil/MEDIA/approach/issues/mayjun05/hypoxiaexpert.htm | title = Are you a hypoxia expert? | last = Brooks | first = Kevin E. | work = Approach | publisher = United States Navy Naval Safety Center | date = May–June 2005 | accessdate = 2007-04-13}} This website provides hypoxia related safety tips for aviators working for the United States Navy aviators.</ref> mountain climbers and fire fighters are all at risk for this kind of cerebral hypoxia. The term also includes oxygen deprivation due to obstructions in the lungs. Choking, strangulation, the crushing of the windpipe all cause this sort of hypoxia. Severe asthmatics may also experience symptoms of hypoxic hypoxia.</li>
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| <li>'''Hypemic hypoxia'''. Reduced brain function is caused by inadequate oxygen in the blood despite adequate environmental oxygen. Anemia and carbon monoxide poisoning are common causes of hypemic hypoxia.</li>
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| <li>'''Ischemic hypoxia''' (a.k.a. stagnant hypoxia). Reduced brain oxygen is caused by inadequate blood flow to the brain. [[Stroke]], shock, and [[heart attacks]] are common causes of stagnant hypoxia. Ischemic hypoxia can also be created by pressure on the brain. [[Cerebral edema]], [[Cerebral hemorrhage|brain hemorrhages]] and [[hydrocephalus]] exert pressure on brain tissue and impede their absorption of oxygen.</li>
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| <li>'''[[Histotoxic hypoxia]]'''. Oxygen is present in brain tissue but cannot be metabolized. [[Cyanide#Toxicity|Cyanide poisoning]] is a well known example.</li>
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| </ul>
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| == Causes == | | ==Diagnosis== |
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| Cerebral hypoxia can be caused by any event that severely interferes with | | [[Cerebral hypoxia history and symptoms|History and Symptoms]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia physical examination|Physical Examination]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia laboratory findings|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia electrocardiogram|EKG]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia CT|CT]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia MRI|MRI]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia echocardiography or ultrasound|Echocardiography or Ultrasound]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia other imaging findings|Other Imaging Findings]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
| the brain's ability to receive or process oxygen. This event may be internal or external to the body.
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| Mild and moderate forms of cerebral hypoxia may be caused by various diseases that interfere with breathing and blood oxygenation. Severe asthma and various sorts of anemia can cause some degree of diffuse cerebral hypoxia. Other causes include work in nitrogen rich environments, [[deep water blackout|ascent from a deep water dive]], flying at high altitudes in an un-pressurized cabin, and intense exercise at high altitudes prior to [[Effects of high altitude on humans|acclimatization]].
| | ==Treatment== |
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| Severe cerebral hypoxia and anoxia is usually caused by traumatic events. Examples include [[choking]], [[drowning]], [[strangulation]], [[smoke inhalation]], [[drug overdoses]], crushing of the [[Vertebrate trachea|trachea]], [[status asthmaticus]], and [[shock (medical)|shock]].<ref name="NINDS">{{cite web | url = http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/anoxia/anoxia.htm | title = Cerebral Hypoxia Information Page | author = [[National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke]] | date = February 8, 2007 | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | publisher = U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]]}}</ref>
| | [[Cerebral hypoxia medical therapy|Medical Therapy]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia primary prevention|Primary Prevention]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia secondary prevention|Secondary Prevention]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia cost-effectiveness of therapy|Cost-Effectiveness of Therapy]] | [[Cerebral hypoxia future or investigational therapies|Future or Investigational Therapies]] |
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| It is also recreationally self-induced in [[Choking_game|the choking game]] and in autoerotic asphyxiation.
| | ==Case Studies== |
| | [[Cerebral hypoxia case study one|Case #1]] |
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| == Signs and symptoms == | | ==Related Chapters== |
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| The brain requires approximately 3.3 ml of oxygen per 100 g of brain tissue per minute. Initially the body responds to lowered blood oxygen by redirecting blood to the brain and increasing cerebral blood flow. Blood flow may increase up to twice the normal flow but no more. If the increased blood flow is sufficient to supply the brain’s oxygen needs then no symptoms will result.
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| <ref name="BasicNeurochemistry">Butterworth, Roger F. (1999). "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=bnchm.section.2727 Hypoxic Encephalopathy]". In: Siegel, George J. ''et al''. (eds.) ''Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects'', 6<sup>th</sup> edition, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 039751820X. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=bnchm.TOC&depth=10 Freely available] at National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf. Retrieved on 2007-04-13.</ref>
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| However, if blood flow cannot be increased or if doubled blood flow does not correct the problem, symptoms of cerebral hypoxia will begin to appear. Mild symptoms include difficulties with complex learning tasks and reductions in short-term memory. If oxygen deprivation continues, cognitive disturbances and decreased motor control will result.<ref name="BasicNeurochemistry"/> The skin may also appear bluish ([[cyanosis]]) and heart rate increases. Continued oxygen deprivation results in fainting, long term loss of consciousness, [[coma]], seizures, cessation of brain stem reflexes, and brain death.<ref name="MedlinePlus">{{cite web | url = http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001435.htm | title = Cerebral hypoxia | date = 2007-04-05 | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | work = [[MedlinePlus|MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia]] | publisher = U.S. [[National Library of Medicine]]}}</ref>
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| Objective measurements of the severity of cerebral hypoxia depend on the cause. Blood oxygen saturation may be used for hypoxic hypoxia, but is generally meaningless in other forms of hypoxia. In hypoxic hypoxia 95-100% saturation is considered normal. 91-94% is considered mild. 86-90% is considered moderate. Anything below 86% is considered severe.<ref name="MIEMSS">{{PDFlink|[http://www.miemss.org/Pro2004UpdateSections.pdf The Maryland Medical Protocols for Emergency Medical Services Providers]|1.00 MiB<!-- application/pdf, 1053685 bytes -->}}. Maryland Institute for Emergency Medical Services Systems (2004). Retrieved on 2007-04-13.</ref>
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| It should be noted that cerebral hypoxia refers to oxygen levels in brain tissue, not blood. Blood oxygenation will usually appear normal in cases of hypemic, ischemic and hystoxic cerebral hypoxia. Even in hypoxic hypoxia blood measures are only an approximate guide – the oxygen level in the brain tissue will depend on how the body deals with the reduced oxygen content of the blood.
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| ==Diagnostic Findings==
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| *Diffuse loss of gray/white differentiation
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| *Diffuse sulcal effacement
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| '''Patient #1: '''
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| [http://www.radswiki.net Images courtesy of RadsWiki]
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| <gallery>
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| Image:Anoxic-brain-injury-001.jpg
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| Image:Anoxic-brain-injury-002.jpg
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| Image:Anoxic-brain-injury-003.jpg
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| Image:Anoxic-brain-injury-004.jpg
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| </gallery>
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| '''Patient #2: '''
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| [http://www.radswiki.net Images courtesy of RadsWiki]
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| <gallery>
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-001.jpg|DWI
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-002.jpg|DWI
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-003.jpg|DWI
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-004.jpg|DWI
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-005.jpg|FLAIR
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-006.jpg|FLAIR
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| Image:Diffuse-hypoxic-ischemia-007.jpg|T1 with GAD
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| </gallery>
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| == Treatment ==
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| The first goal of treatment is to restore oxygen to the brain. The method of restoration depends on the cause of the hypoxia.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://neurology.health-cares.net/cerebral-hypoxia.php | title = Cerebral hypoxia | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | publisher = Health-cares.net}}</ref><!--is this a reliable source?--> For mild to moderate cases of hypoxia, removal of the cause of hypoxia may be sufficient. Inhaled oxygen may also be provided. In severe cases treatment may also involve life support and damage control measures.
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| A deep coma will interfere with body’s breathing reflexes even after the initial cause of hypoxia has been dealt with. [[Mechanical ventilation]] may be required. Additionally severe cerebral hypoxia causes an elevated heart rate. In extreme cases the heart may tire and stop pumping. [[CPR]], defibrilation, [[epinephrine]], and [[atropine]] may all be tried in an effort to get the heart to resume pumping.<ref name="MIEMSS"/>
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| Severe cerebral hypoxia can also cause [[seizures]]. Seizures put the patient at risk of self injury. If convulsions are sufficiently severe medical professionals may not be able to provide medical treatment. Various [[anti-convulsant]] drugs may need to be administered before treatment can continue.
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| Brain damage can occur both during and after oxygen deprivation. During oxygen deprivation, cells die due to an increasing acidity in the brain tissue ([[acidosis]]). Additionally, during the period of oxygen deprivation, materials that can easily create [[free radicals]] build up. When oxygen enters the tissue these materials interact with oxygen to create high levels of oxidants. Oxidants interfere with the normal brain chemistry and cause further damage. This is called [[reperfusion injury]].
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| Techniques for preventing damage to brain cells are an area of on-going research. Controlled [[hypothermia]], anti-oxidant drugs, control of [[blood glucose]] levels, and hemodilution (thinning of the blood) coupled with drug-induced hypertension are some treatment techniques currently under investigation.<ref name="Richmond">Richmond TS (May 1997). "Cerebral Resuscitation after Global Brain Ischemia". ''AACN Clinical Issues'' '''8''' (2). Retrieved on 2007-04-13. [http://www.aacn.org/AACN/jrnlci.nsf/0/a522e8311772eca188256576007821ab?OpenDocument Free full text] at the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses website.</ref>
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| In severe cases it is extremely important to act quickly. Brain cells are very sensitive to reduced oxygen levels. Once deprived of oxygen they will begin to die off within five minutes.<ref name="Richmond"/>
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| == Prognosis ==
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| Mild and moderate cerebral hypoxia generally has no impact beyond the episode of hypoxia. Severe cerebral hypoxia is another matter. Outcome will depend on the success of damage control measures, the amount of brain tissue deprived of oxygen, and the speed with which oxygen was restored to the brain.
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| If cerebral hypoxia was localized to a specific part of the brain, brain damage will be localized to that region. The long term effects will depend on the purpose of that portion of the brain. Damage to the [[Broca]] and [[Wernicke]]’s areas of the brain (left side) typically causes problems with speech and language. Damage to the right side of the brain may interfere with the ability to express emotions or interpret what one sees. Damage on either side can cause paralysis of the opposite side of the body.
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| The effects of certain kinds of severe generalized hypoxias may take time to develop. For example, the long term effects of serious carbon monoxide poisoning usually may take several weeks to appear. Recent research suggests this may be due to an autoimmune response caused by CO induced changes in the myelin sheath surrounding neurons.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/09/040906083815.htm | title = Long-term Effects Of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning Are An Autoimmune Reaction | author = University Of Pennsylvania Medical Center | date = September 6, 2004 | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | publisher = ScienceDaily}}</ref>
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| If hypoxia results in coma, the length of unconsciousness is often used as an indication of long term damage. In some cases coma can give the brain an opportunity to heal and regenerate,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn9474&feedId=brain_rss20 | title = 'Rewired brain' revives patient after 19 years | last = Phillips | first = Helen | date = July 3, 2006 | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | publisher = New Scientist}}</ref> but, in general, the longer a coma continues the greater the likelihood that the person will remain in a vegetative state until death.<ref name="NINDS"/> Even if the patient wakes up, brain damage is likely to be significant enough to prevent a return to normal functioning.
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| The effects of long term comas are not limited to the comatose person. Long term coma can have significant impact on their families.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/coma/DS00724/DSECTION=10 | title = Coma: Coping skills | author = Mayo Clinic staff | date = May 17, 2006 | accessdate = 2007-04-13 | publisher = Mayo Clinic}}</ref> Families of coma victims often have idealized images of the outcome based on Hollywood movie depictions of coma.<ref>Wijdicks EFM, Wijdicks CA (2006). "The portrayal of coma in contemporary motion pictures". ''Neurology'' '''66''' (9): 1300–1303. PMID 16682658.</ref> Adjusting to the realities of ventilators, feeding tubes, bedsores and muscle wasting may be difficult.<ref>Konig P ''et al'' (1992). "Psychological counseling of the family of patients with craniocerebral injuries (psychological family counseling of severely ill patients)". ''Zentralbl Neurochir'' '''53''' (2): 78–84. PMID 1636327.</ref> Treatment decision often involve complex ethical choices and can strain family dynamics.<ref>Montgomery V ''et al'' (2002). "The effect of severe traumatic brain injury on the family". ''J Trauma'' '''52''' (6): 1121–4. PMID 12045640.</ref>
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Altitude sickness]] | | * [[Altitude sickness]] |
| * [[Deep water blackout]] | | * [[Deep water blackout]] |
| * [[Physical trauma]] | | * [[Physical trauma]] |
| * [[Hypoxia (medical)]] | | * [[Hypoxia]] |
| * [[Choking game]] | | * [[Choking game]] |
| * Space exposure
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| ==References==
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| {{Reflist|2}}
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| {{CNS diseases of the nervous system}} | | {{CNS diseases of the nervous system}} |
| {{Vascular diseases}} | | {{Vascular diseases}} |
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| [[Category:Neurology]] | | [[Category:Neurology]] |
