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{{Ascites}}
{{Ascites}}


{{CMG}} {{AE}} {{MUT}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{EG}}, {{MUT}}, {{CLG}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
 
Life-threatening causes of ascites are [[acute liver failure]], [[hepatic failure]], and [[hepatorenal syndrome]]. Common causes of ascites are [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]], [[malignancy]], and [[cirrhosis]]. Less common causes of ascites are the conditions which may lead to fetal ascites, neonatal ascites, and infantile ascites.


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life Threatening Causes===
* [[Acute liver failure]]
* [[Hepatic failure]]
* [[Hepatorenal syndrome]]
* [[Liver]] [[fibrosis]]
* [[Liver cirrhosis]]


===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
Causes of high [[Serum-ascities albumin gradient|SAAG]] ("transudate") are:
 
* [[Cirrhosis]] - 81% (alcoholic in 65%, viral in 10%, cryptogenic in 6%)
* [[Budd-Chiari  syndrome]]  
* [[Heart failure]] - 3%
* [[Cancer]]  
* [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]] or [[veno-occlusive disease]]
* [[Cirrhosis]]  
* [[Constrictive pericarditis]]
* [[Constrictive pericarditis]]
* [[Heart failure]]
* [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
* [[Pancreatitis]]
* [[Serositis]]
* [[Tuberculosis]]
=== Less common causes ===
==== Causes of fetal ascites<ref name="pmid2164662">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sun CC, Keene CL, Nagey DA |title=Hepatic fibrosis in congenital cytomegalovirus infection: with fetal ascites and pulmonary hypoplasia |journal=Pediatr Pathol |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=641–6 |year=1990 |pmid=2164662 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2997019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Stocker JT |title=Congenital cytomegalovirus infection presenting as massive ascites with secondary pulmonary hypoplasia |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=1173–5 |year=1985 |pmid=2997019 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9732503">{{cite journal |vauthors=Patton WL, Lutz AM, Willmann JK, Callen P, Barkovich AJ, Gooding CA |title=Systemic spread of meconium peritonitis |journal=Pediatr Radiol |volume=28 |issue=9 |pages=714–6 |year=1998 |pmid=9732503 |doi=10.1007/s002470050449 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid7472957">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dirkes K, Crombleholme TM, Craigo SD, Latchaw LA, Jacir NN, Harris BH, D'Alton ME |title=The natural history of meconium peritonitis diagnosed in utero |journal=J. Pediatr. Surg. |volume=30 |issue=7 |pages=979–82 |year=1995 |pmid=7472957 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20389051">{{cite journal |vauthors=Son M, Walsh CA, Baxi LV |title=Prenatal diagnosis of urinary ascites in a fetus with meningomyelocele |journal=Fetal. Diagn. Ther. |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=61–4 |year=2010 |pmid=20389051 |doi=10.1159/000312405 |url=}}</ref> ====
* [[Gastrointestinal disorders]]
** [[Meconium peritonitis]]
** [[Intestinal malrotation]]
** [[Small intestine|Small intestinal]] or [[Colon (anatomy)|colonic]] [[atresia]]
** [[Intussusception]]
** [[Volvulus]]
** [[Cystic fibrosis|Cystic fibrosis]]
** [[Biliary atresia]]
** [[Portal venous system|Portal venous]] malformations
* [[Infection]]
** [[Parvovirus]]
** [[Syphilis]]
** [[Cytomegalovirus]]
** [[Toxoplasmosis]]
** Acute maternal [[hepatitis]]
* [[Genitourinary pathology|Genitourinary disorders]]
** [[Hydronephrosis]]
** [[Polycystic kidney disease]]
** [[Urinary obstruction]]
** [[Ovarian cysts|Ovarian cyst]]
** [[Persistent cloaca]]
* [[Chylous ascites]] 
* [[Cardiac disease|Cardiac disorders]]
** [[Arrhythmia]]
** [[Heart failure]]
* [[Chromosomal abnormalities]]
** [[Trisomy]]
** [[Turner syndrome]]
* [[Neoplasm]]
* [[Hematologic]]
** [[Hemolytic anemia]]
** [[Neonatal hemochromatosis]]
* [[Metabolic disease]]
** [[Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C|Niemann-Pick type C]]
** [[Congenital disorders of glycosylation]]
** [[Wolman disease]]
** [[Lysosomal storage diseases|Lysosomal storage disease]]
* Other
** [[Maternal]]/fetal [[abuse]]
** [[Idiopathic]]


Causes of low [[Serum-ascities albumin gradient|SAAG]] ("exudate") are:
==== Causes of neonatal ascites<ref name="SpriggsBrantley1977">{{cite journal|last1=Spriggs|first1=DW|last2=Brantley|first2=RE|title=Thoracic and abdominal extravasation: a complication of hyperalimentation in infants|journal=American Journal of Roentgenology|volume=128|issue=3|year=1977|pages=419–422|issn=0361-803X|doi=10.2214/ajr.128.3.419}}</ref><ref name="pmid6701064">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hepworth RC, Milstein JM |title=The transected urachus: an unusual cause of neonatal ascites |journal=Pediatrics |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=397–400 |year=1984 |pmid=6701064 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18172830">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keller M, Scholl-Buergi S, Sergi C, Theurl I, Weiss G, Unsinn KM, Trawöger R |title=An unusual case of intrauterine symptomatic neonatal liver failure |journal=Klin Padiatr |volume=220 |issue=1 |pages=32–6 |year=2008 |pmid=18172830 |doi=10.1055/s-2007-970591 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6420531">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gillan JE, Lowden JA, Gaskin K, Cutz E |title=Congenital ascites as a presenting sign of lysosomal storage disease |journal=J. Pediatr. |volume=104 |issue=2 |pages=225–31 |year=1984 |pmid=6420531 |doi= |url=}}</ref>====
* [[Cancer]] (primary peritoneal carcinomatosis and metastasis) - 10%
* [[Hepatobiliary disease|Hepatobiliary disorders]]
* [[Tuberculosis]] - 2%
** [[Cirrhosis]]
* [[Pancreatitis]] - 1%
** [[Alpha 1-Antitrypsin Deficiency|Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency]]
* [[Serositis]]
** [[Congenital]] [[hepatic]] [[Fibrosis|fibrosis]]
* [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
** [[Viral hepatitis]]
** [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]]
** [[Biliary atresia]]
** [[Bile duct]] [[perforation]]
** [[Portal venous system|Portal venous]] [[malformation]]
** [[Hamartoma|Ruptured mesenchymal hamartoma]]
* [[Gastrointestinal disorders]]
** [[Intestinal malrotation]]
** [[Intestinal perforation]]
** [[Acute appendicitis]]
** [[Intestinal atresia]]
** [[Pancreatitis]]
* [[Chylous ascites]]
* [[Parenteral nutrition]] [[extravasation]]
* [[Metabolic disease]]
* [[Genitourinary pathology|Genitourinary disorders]]
** [[Obstructive uropathy]] 
*** [[Posterior urethral valves]] 
*** [[Ureterocele]] 
*** [[Ureteral disease|Lower ureteral stenosis]] 
*** [[Ureteral]] [[atresia]] 
*** [[Imperforate hymen]] 
*** [[Bladder rupture]]       
** [[Bladder]] injury from [[umbilical artery]] [[catheterization]]
** [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
** Ruptured [[Corpus luteum|corpus luteum cyst]]
* [[Cardiac]]
** [[Arrhythmia]]
** [[Heart failure]]
* [[Hematologic]]
** [[Neonatal hemochromatosis]]
* Other
** [[Cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita|Cutis marmota telangictatica congenita]]
** Intravenous [[vitamin E]]
** Pseudo-[[ascites]]
*** [[Small bowel]] duplication
** [[Abdominal trauma]]  
** [[Idiopathic]]
 
==== Causes of infants and children ascites<ref name="pmid11465792">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gil Z, Beni-Adani L, Siomin V, Nagar H, Dvir R, Constantini S |title=Ascites following ventriculoperitoneal shunting in children with chiasmatic-hypothalamic glioma |journal=Childs Nerv Syst |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=395–8 |year=2001 |pmid=11465792 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3054040">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodman GM, Gourley GR |title=Ascites complicating ventriculoperitoneal shunts |journal=J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=780–2 |year=1988 |pmid=3054040 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19898601">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zegarra A, García C, Piscoya A, de Los Ríos R, Luis Pinto J, Mayo N, Huerta-Mercado J |title=[Eosinophilic enteritis as a rare cause of ascites: case report] |language=Spanish; Castilian |journal=Rev Gastroenterol Peru |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=272–5 |year=2009 |pmid=19898601 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid6391392">{{cite journal |vauthors=Caine Y, Deckelbaum RJ, Weizman Z, Lijovetsky G, Schiller M |title=Congenital hepatic fibrosis--unusual presentations |journal=Arch. Dis. Child. |volume=59 |issue=11 |pages=1094–6 |year=1984 |pmid=6391392 |pmc=1628818 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ====
* [[Hepato-biliary diseases|Hepatobiliary disorders]]
** [[Cirrhosis]]
** [[Congenital]] [[hepatic]] [[Fibrosis|fibrosis]]
** [[Hepatitis|Acute hepatitis]]
** [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]]
** [[Bile duct]] [[perforation]]
** [[Liver transplantation]]
* [[Gastrointestinal disorders]]
** [[Acute appendicitis]]
** [[Intestinal atresia]]
** [[Pancreatitis]]
** [[Pylorus|Pyloric]] duplication
* [[Serositis]]
** [[Crohn disease]]
** [[Eosinophilic enteritis|Eosinophilic enteropathy]]
** [[Henoch-Schonlein purpura]]
* [[Chylous ascites]]
** [[Lymphangiectasia|Intestinal lymphangiectasia]]
** [[Lymphatic System|Lymphatic duct]] obstruction
** [[Lymphatic system|Lymphatic duct]] trauma
* [[Parenteral nutrition]] [[extravasation]]
* [[Neoplasm]]
** [[Lymphoma]]
** [[Wilms tumor|Wilm tumor]]
** Clear cell renal [[sarcoma]]
** [[Glioma]]
** [[Germ cell tumor]]
** [[Ovarian tumor]]
** [[Mesothelioma]]
** [[Neuroblastoma]]
* [[Metabolic disease]]
* [[Genitourinary pathology|Genitourinary disorders]]
** [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
** [[Peritoneal dialysis]] 
* [[Cardiac]]
** [[Heart failure]]
* Pseudo-ascites
** [[Celiac disease]]
** [[Mesothelioma|Cystic mesothelioma]]
** Omental cyst
** [[Ovarian cyst]]
* Other
** [[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
** [[Ventriculoperitoneal shunt]]
** [[Vitamin A Overdose|Vitamin A toxicity]]
** [[Chronic granulomatous disease]]
** [[Nonaccidental trauma]]
** [[Idiopathic]]


===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" | '''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | [[Arteriovenous fistula]], [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]], [[cardiac amyloidosis]][[cardiomegaly ]], [[cardiomyopathy]], [[cholesterol pericarditis]], [[congestive heart failure]], [[constrictive pericarditis]], [[congestive heart failure ]], [[constrictive pericarditis]], constrictive tuberculous pericarditis, [[chylous ascites]], [[cor pulmonale]], diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis,[[endomyocardial fibrosis]], [[heart failure]], [[inferior vena cava web]], lymphangiectasies and lymphedema hennekam type, lymphedema lymphangiectasia mental retardation, [[lymphatic obstruction]], lymphatic malformation, Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma, obstruction of the inferior vena cava, [[pericarditis]], [[right heart failure]], [[tricuspid insufficiency]], [[tricuspid regurgitation]], [[tricuspid stenosis]], tricuspid valve diseases,[[veno-occlusive disease]], [[ventriculoperitoneal shunt]], [[waldmann disease]]
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Arteriovenous fistula]], [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]], [[Cardiac amyloidosis]], [[Cardiomegaly]], [[Cardiomyopathy]], [[Cholesterol pericarditis]], [[Congestive heart failure]], [[Constrictive pericarditis]], [[Congestive heart failure]], [[Constrictive pericarditis]], [[Tuberculous pericarditis]], [[Chylous ascites]], [[Cor pulmonale]], [[Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis]], [[Endomyocardial fibrosis]], [[Heart failure]], [[Inferior vena cava web]], [[Lymphatic obstruction]], [[Lymphangioma]], [[Kaposiform hemangio-endothelioma]], [[Inferior vena cava syndrome]], [[Pericarditis]], [[Right heart failure]], [[Tricuspid insufficiency]], [[Tricuspid regurgitation]], [[Tricuspid stenosis]], [[Tricuspid valve disease|Tricuspid valve disease]], [[Veno-occlusive disease]], [[Ventriculoperitoneal shunt]], [[Waldmann disease]].
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
| '''Chemical / poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita|Cutis marmota telangictatica congenita]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Mercaptopurine]], [[Pramipexole]], [[Thalidomide]]
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acyclovir]], [[Mercaptopurine]], [[Pramipexole]], [[Thalidomide]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Hypothyroidism]], Thyroxine deficiency, [[Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
[[Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acute liver failure]], [[Acute pancreatitis]], [[Alcoholic hepatitis]], [[Alcoholic liver disease]], [[Ascending cholangitis]], [[Biliary atresia]], [[Biliary fistula]], [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]], [[Cholangiocarcinoma]], [[Cholecystitis]], [[Cholelithiasis]], [[Chronic hepatitis]],[[Cirrhosis]], [[Colorectal cancer]], [[Congenital]] [[liver]] [[fibrosis]], [[End stage liver failure]], [[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]], [[Esophageal cancer]], [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]], [[Fulminant liver failure]], [[Granulomatous peritonitis]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hepatic failure]], [[Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency]], [[Hepatitis]], [[Hepato-biliary diseases]], [[Idiopathic liver cirrhosis]], [[Krukenberg tumor]], [[Liver cancer]], [[Liver damage]], [[Ménétrier's disease]], [[Mosse syndrome]], [[Neonatal hepatitis]], [[Nodular]] regenerative hyperplasia of the [[liver]], [[Nutmeg liver]], [[Obliterative portal venopathy]], [[Obstructive jaundice]], [[Pancreatic cancer]], [[Pancreatic fistula]], [[Peritonitis]], [[Portal hypertension]], [[Portal vein occlusion]], [[Portal vein thrombosis]], [[Primary biliary cirrhosis]], [[Primary sclerosing cholangitis]], [[Pseudomyxoma peritonei]], [[Secondary biliary cirrhosis]], Severe [[hepatitis]], [[Stomach cancer]], [[Tuberculous peritonitis]], [[Waldmann disease]], [[Whipple disease]]
[[Acute liver failure]],
[[Acute pancreatitis]],
[[Alcoholic hepatitis]],
[[Alcoholic liver disease]],
[[Biliary fistula]],
 
[[Cirrhosis of liver]],
 
[[Cholangiocarcinoma]],
[[Chronic hepatitis]],
[[Colorectal cancer]],
congenital liver fibrosis,
[[Cirrhosis]],
[[End stage liver failure]],
Endocrine pancreatic cancer,
Eosinophilic enteropathy
[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]],
[[Esophageal cancer]],
extrahepatic biliary atresia,
[[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]],
[[Fulminant liver failure]],
[[Granulomatous peritonitis]],
[[Hepatic failure]],
Hepatic vein occlusion,
[[Hepato-biliary diseases]],
[[Hemochromatosis]],
[[Hepatic vein thrombosis]],
[[Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency]],
[[Hepatitis ]],
 
[[Idiopathic liver cirrhosis]],
Liver blockage,
[[Ménétrier's disease]],  
[[Mosse syndrome]],
[[Nutmeg liver]],
[[Neonatal hepatitis]],
[[Obliterative portal venopathy]],
[[Obstructive jaundice]],
[[Pancreatic fistula]],
[[Peritonitis]],
[[Portal hypertension]],
[[Portal vein occlusion]],  
[[Krukenberg tumor]],
 
 
 
 
 
[[Liver cancer ]],
 
[[Liver damage ]],
 
[[Liver disorders ]],
 
[[Liver vein outflow obstruction  ]],
 
 
 
 
[[Nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver  ]],
 
 
 
[[Pancreatic cancer]],
 
[[Portal hypertension  ]],
 
[[Portal vein thrombosis ]],
 
[[Primary biliary cirrhosis   ]],
 
[[Pseudomyxoma peritonei]],
 
[[Rectractile mesenteritis  ]],
 
[[Secondary biliary cirrhosis   ]],
 
[[Severe hepatitis ]],
 
[[Stomach cancer]],
 
[[Tuberculous peritonitis ]],
 
[[Waldmann disease   ]],
 
[[Whipple disease]],
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C|Niemann-Pick type C]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]], [[Banti's Syndrome]], [[Budd-chiari syndrome]], [[Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis]], [[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]], [[Erythroblastosis fetalis ]] , [[Extramedullary haemopoiesis]], [[Hemolytic disease of the newborn]], [[Mastocytosis]], [[Mosse syndrome]], [[Tang Hsi Ryu syndrome]]
[[Banti's syndrome]],
[[Haemochromatosis]],
Intestinal lymphatic blockage,
[[Turner's syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Bladder]] injury from [[umbilical artery]] [[catheterization]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |
[[Alveolar hydatid disease]],
[[Alveolar hydatid disease]], [[Amebiasis]], [[Bilharzia]], [[Chronic hepatitis]], [[Chronic viral hepatitis]], [[Cytomegalovirus infection|cytomegalovirus]], [[Echinococcosis]], [[Epstein-Barr virus|Epstein Barr virus]], [[Filariasis]], [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]], [[Hepatitis A|acute hepatitis A]], [[Hepatitis B|Acute hepatitis B]], [[hepatitis C|Acute hepatitis C]], [[Hepatitis D|Acute Hepatitis D]], [[hepatitis E|Acute hepatitis E]], [[herpes simplex|Herpes simplex infection]], [[Hookworm disease]], [[Kaposiform hemangio-endothelioma]], [[Leptospirosis]], [[Malaria]],
[[Bacterial peritonitis]],
[[Portal hypertension]] in [[schistosomiasis]], [[Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis]], [[rubella|Rubella virus infection]],[[Schistosomiasis]], [[schistosomiasis|Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis]], [[Sleeping sickness]], [[Strongyloidiasis]], Stuartbras disease, [[Syphilis|liver disease in syphilis]], [[Toxoplasmosis]], [[Tuberculosis]], [[Tuberculous peritonitis]], [[Tularemia]], [[Whipple disease]], [[yellow fever|Yellow fever virus infection]]
[[Dengue fever]],
[[Fasciolopsiasis]],
[[Fasciolosis]],
[[Hepatitis C]],
[[Hookworm]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Hypoalbuminemia]],
[[Crigler-Najjar syndrome]], [[Dubin-Johnson syndrome]], [[Gilbert's syndrome]], [[Hemochromatosis]], [[Hypoalbuminemia]], [[Kwashiorkor]], [[Rotor's syndrome]], [[VLCAD deficiency]], [[Wilson's Disease]]
[[Kwashiorkor]],
[[Wilson's Disease]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Meigs' syndrome]],
[[Meigs' syndrome]], [[Mirror syndrome]]
[[Mirror syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]],
[[Anasarca]], [[Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]], [[Angiosarcoma]] of the [[liver]], [[Bladder cancer]], [[Cholangiocarcinoma]], [[Cirrhosis of liver]], [[Colorectal cancer]], [[Desmoplastic small round cell tumor]], [[Esophageal cancer]], [[Liver cancer]], [[Liver cirrhosis]], [[Lung cancer]], [[Meig's syndrome]], [[Metastasis]], [[Ovarian cancer]], [[Pancreatic cancer]], [[Pelvic]] region [[cancers]], [[Pseudomyxoma peritonei]], [[Stomach cancer]], [[WAGR syndrome]], [[Wilms tumor]], [[Yolk sac tumor]],
[[Desmoplastic small round cell tumor]],
[[Malignancy]],
[[Ovarian cancer]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Opthalmologic'''
| '''Opthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
| '''Overdose / Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Vitamin A Overdose|Vitamin A toxicity]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Maternal]]/fetal [[abuse]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Pulmonary hypertension]]
[[Cor pulmonale]], [[Lung cancer]], [[Mesothelioma]], [[Nephrotic syndrome]], [[Pulmonary hypertension]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal / Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Hepatorenal syndrome]],
[[Hepatorenal syndrome]], [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
[[Nephrotic syndrome]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]],
Chronic [[bacterial]] [[infection]], [[Erythroblastosis fetalis]], [[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]], [[Eosinophilic]] [[peritonitis]], [[Hemolytic disease of the newborn]], [[Hemolytic anemia]], [[Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency]], [[Hepatoma]], [[Immunoproliferative diseases]], [[Primary biliary cirrhosis]], [[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]
Eosinophilic [[peritonitis]],
[[Primary biliary cirrhosis]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Bladder rupture]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Posterior urethral valves]], [[Ureterocele]], [[Ureteral disease|Lower ureteral stenosis]], [[Ureteral]] [[atresia]], [[Imperforate hymen]], [[Bladder rupture]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"|  
| bgcolor="Beige" |  
[[Hypervolemia]],
[[Hypervolemia]], [[Idiopathic]], [[Metastasis]], [[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]], [[POEMS syndrome]]
[[Idiopathic]],
[[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]],
[[POEMS syndrome]]
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
{{MultiCol}}
{{Columns-list|3|
*[[Acute liver failure]]
 
*[[Acute pancreatitis]]
* [[Abdominal trauma]]
*[[Alcoholic hepatitis]]
* [[Acute appendicitis]]
*[[Alcoholic liver disease]]
* [[Acute liver failure]]  
*[[Alveolar hydatid disease]]
* [[Acute pancreatitis]]
*[[Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]]
* [[Acyclovir]]  
*[[Bacterial peritonitis]]
* [[Alcoholic hepatitis]]
*[[Banti's syndrome]]
* [[Alpha 1-Antitrypsin Deficiency|Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency]]
*[[Biliary fistula]]
* [[Alcoholic liver disease]]  
*[[Budd-Chiari syndrome]]
* [[Alveolar hydatid disease]]
*[[Cardiac amyloidosis]]
* [[Amebiasis]]
*[[Cardiac failure]], right sided
* [[Anasarca]]
*[[Cholangiocarcinoma]]
* [[Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma]]
*[[Cholesterol pericarditis]]
* [[Angiosarcoma]] of the [[liver]]
*[[Chronic hepatitis]]
* [[Arteriovenous  fistula]]
*[[Chylous ascites]]
* [[Arrhythmia]]
*[[Cirrhosis]]
* [[Ascending  cholangitis]]  
*[[Congestive Heart Failure]]
* [[Banti's Syndrome]]
*[[Constrictive pericarditis]]
* [[Bile duct]] [[perforation]]
*[[Dengue fever]]
* [[Bilharzia]]
*[[Desmoplastic small round cell tumor]]
* [[Biliary atresia]]  
*[[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]]
* [[Biliary fistula]]  
*Eosinophilic [[peritonitis]]
* [[Bladder cancer]]
*[[Fasciolopsiasis]]
* [[Bladder]] injury from [[umbilical artery]] [[catheterization]]
*[[Fasciolosis]]
* [[Bladder rupture]]       
*[[Haemochromatosis]]
* [[Budd-Chiari syndrome]]  
*[[Hepatic failure]]
* [[Cardiac amyloidosis]]  
*[[Hepatic vein thrombosis]]
* [[Cardiomegaly]]
*[[Hepatitis C]]
* [[Cardiomyopathy]]
{{ColBreak}}
* [[Celiac disease]]
*[[Hepato-biliary diseases]]
* [[Cholangiocarcinoma]]
*[[Hepatorenal syndrome]]
* [[Cholecystitis]]
*[[Hookworm]]
* [[Cholelithiasis]]  
*[[Hypervolemia]]
* [[Cholesterol pericarditis]]  
*[[Hypoalbuminemia]]
* [[Chronic]] [[bacterial  infection]]
*[[Idiopathic]]
* [[Chronic granulomatous disease]]
*Intestinal lymphatic blockage
* [[Chronic hepatitis]]
*[[Kwashiorkor]]
* [[Chronic viral hepatitis]]
*[[Malignancy]]
* [[Chylous ascites]]  
*[[Meigs' syndrome]]
* [[Cirrhosis]]
*[[Ménétrier's disease]]
* Clear cell renal sarcoma
*[[Mirror syndrome]]
* [[Colorectal cancer]]
*[[Nephrotic syndrome]]
* [[Congenital disorders of glycosylation]]
*[[Nutmeg liver]]
* [[Congenital]] [[liver]] [[fibrosis]]  
*[[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]]
* [[Congestive heart  failure]]  
*Obstruction of the inferior vena cava
* [[Constrictive pericarditis]]  
*[[Ovarian cancer]]
* [[Cor pulmonale]]
*[[Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
* [[Crigler-Najjar  syndrome]]
*[[Pancreatic fistula]]
* [[Crohn disease]]
*[[Peritonitis]]
* [[Cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita|Cutis marmota telangictatica congenita]]
*[[POEMS syndrome]]
* [[Cystic fibrosis|Cystic fibrosis]]
*[[Portal hypertension]]
* [[Mesothelioma|Cystic mesothelioma]]
*[[Portal vein occlusion]]
* [[Cytomegalovirus  infection|cytomegalovirus]]
*[[Primary biliary cirrhosis]]
* [[Desmoplastic small round cell tumor]]
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]]
* [[Diffuse neonatal  hemangiomatosis]]
*[[Trauma]]
* [[Dubin-Johnson syndrome]]
*[[Tricuspid insufficiency]]
* [[Echinococcosis]]
*[[Turner's syndrome]]
* [[End stage liver  failure]]
*[[Veno-occlusive disease]]
* [[Endomyocardial  fibrosis]]  
*[[Wilson's Disease]]
* [[Eosinophilic gastroenteritis]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
* [[Epstein-Barr virus|Epstein  Barr virus]]
* [[Erythroblastosis  fetalis ]]
* [[Esophageal cancer]]
* [[Extramedullary  haemopoiesis]]
* [[Filariasis]]
* [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis  syndrome]]
* [[Fulminant liver  failure]]
* [[Germ cell tumor]]
* [[Gilbert's syndrome]]
* [[Glioma]]
* [[Granulomatous  peritonitis]]  
* [[Heart failure]]
* [[Hemochromatosis]]
* [[Hemolytic anemia]]
* [[Hemolytic disease of the  newborn]]
* [[Henoch-Schonlein purpura]]
* [[Hepatic failure]]  
* [[Hepatic venoocclusive  disease with immunodeficiency]]
* [[Hepatitis A]]
* [[Hepatitis B]]
* [[Hepatitis C]]
* [[Hepatitis D]]
* [[Hepatitis E]]
* [[Hepatitis]]
* [[Hepato-biliary diseases]]
* [[Hepatoma]]
* [[Hepatorenal syndrome]]
* [[Herpes simplex|herpes  simplex infection]]
* [[Hookworm disease]]
* [[Hydronephrosis]]  
* [[Hypervolemia]]
* [[Hypoalbuminemia]]
* [[Hypothyroidism]]
* [[Idiopathic liver  cirrhosis]]
* [[Imperforate hymen]] 
* [[Immunoproliferative  diseases]]
* [[Inferior vena cava  syndrome]]
* [[Inferior vena cava  web]] * [[Intestinal atresia]]
* [[Intestinal malrotation]]
* [[Lymphangiectasia|Intestinal lymphangiectasia]]
* Intravenous [[vitamin E]]
* [[Intussusception]]
* [[Kaposiform  hemangio-endothelioma]]
* [[Krukenberg  tumor]]
* [[Kwashiorkor]]
* [[Leptospirosis]]
* [[Liver cancer]]
* [[Liver cirrhosis]]
* [[Liver damage]]
* [[Liver transplantation]]
* [[Loeffler syndrome]]
* [[Lung cancer]]
* [[Lymphangioma]]
* [[Lymphatic System|Lymphatic duct]] obstruction
* [[Lymphatic system|Lymphatic duct]] trauma
* [[Lymphatic  obstruction]]
* [[Lymphoma]]
* [[Lysosomal storage diseases|Lysosomal storage disease]]
* [[Malaria]]
* [[Mastocytosis]]
* [[Maternal]]/fetal [[abuse]]
* [[Meconium peritonitis]]
* [[Meig's syndrome]]
* [[Ménétrier's disease]]
* [[Mercaptopurine]]
* [[Mesothelioma]]
* [[Metastasis]]
* [[Mirror syndrome]]
* [[Mosse syndrome]]
* [[Niemann-Pick Disease, Type C|Niemann-Pick type C]]
* [[Neonatal hemochromatosis]]
* [[Neonatal  hepatitis]]  
* [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
* [[Neuroblastoma]]
* [[Nodular]] regenerative  [[hyperplasia]] of the [[liver]]  
* [[Nutmeg liver]]  
* [[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]]
* [[Obliterative portal  venopathy]]
* [[Obstructive  jaundice]]
* [[Obstructive uropathy]] 
* Omental cyst
* [[Ovarian cyst]]
* [[Ovarian cancer]]
* [[Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome]]
* [[Pancreatic cancer]]
* [[Pancreatic  fistula]]
* [[Pancreatitis]]
* [[Parenteral nutrition]] [[extravasation]]
* [[Parvovirus]]
* [[Pelvic]] region [[cancers]]
* [[Pericarditis]]  
* [[Peritonitis]]
* [[Peritoneal dialysis]] 
* [[Persistent cloaca]]
* [[POEMS syndrome]]
* [[Polycystic kidney disease]]
* [[Portal hypertension]]
* [[Portal hypertension]] in  [[schistosomiasis]]
* [[Portal vein occlusion]]
* [[Portal vein  thrombosis]]
* [[Portal venous system|Portal venous]] [[malformation]]
* [[Poststreptococcal  glomerulonephritis]]
* [[Posterior urethral valves]] 
* [[Pramipexole]]  
* [[Primary biliary cirrhosis]]
* [[Primary sclerosing  cholangitis]]
* [[Pseudomyxoma peritonei]]
* [[Pulmonary hypertension]]
* [[Pylorus|Pyloric]] duplication
* [[Right heart  failure]]
* [[Rotor's syndrome]]
* [[Rubella|Rubella virus  infection]]
* Ruptured [[Corpus luteum|corpus luteum cyst]]
* [[Hamartoma|Ruptured mesenchymal hamartoma]]
* [[Schistosomiasis]]
* [[Schistosomiasis|hepatosplenic  schistosomiasis]]
* [[Secondary biliary  cirrhosis]]
* Severe  [[hepatitis]]
* [[Sleeping sickness]]
* [[Stomach cancer]]
* [[Strongyloidiasis]]
* [[Budd-Chiari syndrome|Stuartbras disease]]
* [[Small intestine|Small intestinal]] or [[Colon (anatomy)|colonic]] [[atresia]]
* [[Syphilis|liver disease in  syphilis]]
* [[Systemic lupus  erythematosus]]
* [[Tang Hsi Ryu  syndrome]]
* [[Thalidomide]]
* [[Thyroxine]]  deficiency
* [[Toxoplasmosis]]
* [[Tricuspid insufficiency]]
* [[Tricuspid  regurgitation]]
* [[Tricuspid  stenosis]]
* [[Tricuspid valve  disease|tricuspid valve disease]]
* [[Trisomy]]
* [[Tuberculosis]]
* [[Tuberculous  pericarditis]]
* [[Tuberculous peritonitis]]
* [[Tularemia]]
* [[Turner syndrome]]
* [[Ureterocele]] 
* [[Ureteral disease|Lower ureteral stenosis]] 
* [[Ureteral]] [[atresia]]  
* [[Veno-occlusive disease]]
* [[Ventriculoperitoneal  shunt]]
* [[Vitamin A Overdose|Vitamin A toxicity]]
* [[VLCAD deficiency]]
* [[Volvulus]]
* [[WAGR syndrome]]
* [[Waldmann disease]]
* [[Whipple disease]]
* [[Wilms tumor]]
* [[Wilson's Disease]]
* [[Wolman disease]]
* [[Yellow fever|yellow fever  virus infection]]
* [[Yolk sac tumor]]
}}


===Fetal Ascites===
Causes of fetal ascites include:<ref name="pmid7899269">{{cite journal |author=Zelop C, Benacerraf BR |title=The causes and natural history of fetal ascites |journal=Prenat. Diagn. |volume=14 |issue=10 |pages=941–6 |year=1994 |month=October |pmid=7899269 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*[[Urinary ascites]]
*Bowel rupture (i.e. [[meconium peritonitis]])
*[[ovarian cyst|Ruptured ovarian cyst]]
*[[Hydrops]]
*[[Pseudoascites]]
*[[Infection]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
[[Category: Medicine]]
[[Category: Up-To-Date]]
[[Category: Gastroenterology]]
[[Category: Hepatology]]
[[Category: Emergency medicine]]


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Latest revision as of 12:29, 12 February 2018

Ascites Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [2], M.Umer Tariq [3], Carlos A Lopez, M.D. [4]

Overview

Life-threatening causes of ascites are acute liver failure, hepatic failure, and hepatorenal syndrome. Common causes of ascites are Budd-Chiari syndrome, malignancy, and cirrhosis. Less common causes of ascites are the conditions which may lead to fetal ascites, neonatal ascites, and infantile ascites.

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Common Causes

Less common causes

Causes of fetal ascites[1][2][3][4][5]

Causes of neonatal ascites[6][7][8][9]

Causes of infants and children ascites[10][11][12][13]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Arteriovenous fistula, Budd-Chiari syndrome, Cardiac amyloidosis, Cardiomegaly, Cardiomyopathy, Cholesterol pericarditis, Congestive heart failure, Constrictive pericarditis, Congestive heart failure, Constrictive pericarditis, Tuberculous pericarditis, Chylous ascites, Cor pulmonale, Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis, Endomyocardial fibrosis, Heart failure, Inferior vena cava web, Lymphatic obstruction, Lymphangioma, Kaposiform hemangio-endothelioma, Inferior vena cava syndrome, Pericarditis, Right heart failure, Tricuspid insufficiency, Tricuspid regurgitation, Tricuspid stenosis, Tricuspid valve disease, Veno-occlusive disease, Ventriculoperitoneal shunt, Waldmann disease.
Chemical / poisoning No underlying causes
Dermatologic Cutis marmota telangictatica congenita
Drug Side Effect Acyclovir, Mercaptopurine, Pramipexole, Thalidomide
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine Hypothyroidism, Thyroxine deficiency, Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Acute liver failure, Acute pancreatitis, Alcoholic hepatitis, Alcoholic liver disease, Ascending cholangitis, Biliary atresia, Biliary fistula, Budd-Chiari syndrome, Cholangiocarcinoma, Cholecystitis, Cholelithiasis, Chronic hepatitis,Cirrhosis, Colorectal cancer, Congenital liver fibrosis, End stage liver failure, Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, Esophageal cancer, Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome, Fulminant liver failure, Granulomatous peritonitis, Hemochromatosis, Hepatic failure, Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency, Hepatitis, Hepato-biliary diseases, Idiopathic liver cirrhosis, Krukenberg tumor, Liver cancer, Liver damage, Ménétrier's disease, Mosse syndrome, Neonatal hepatitis, Nodular regenerative hyperplasia of the liver, Nutmeg liver, Obliterative portal venopathy, Obstructive jaundice, Pancreatic cancer, Pancreatic fistula, Peritonitis, Portal hypertension, Portal vein occlusion, Portal vein thrombosis, Primary biliary cirrhosis, Primary sclerosing cholangitis, Pseudomyxoma peritonei, Secondary biliary cirrhosis, Severe hepatitis, Stomach cancer, Tuberculous peritonitis, Waldmann disease, Whipple disease
Genetic Niemann-Pick type C
Hematologic Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, Banti's Syndrome, Budd-chiari syndrome, Diffuse neonatal hemangiomatosis, Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, Erythroblastosis fetalis , Extramedullary haemopoiesis, Hemolytic disease of the newborn, Mastocytosis, Mosse syndrome, Tang Hsi Ryu syndrome
Iatrogenic Bladder injury from umbilical artery catheterization
Infectious Disease

Alveolar hydatid disease, Amebiasis, Bilharzia, Chronic hepatitis, Chronic viral hepatitis, cytomegalovirus, Echinococcosis, Epstein Barr virus, Filariasis, Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome, acute hepatitis A, Acute hepatitis B, Acute hepatitis C, Acute Hepatitis D, Acute hepatitis E, Herpes simplex infection, Hookworm disease, Kaposiform hemangio-endothelioma, Leptospirosis, Malaria, Portal hypertension in schistosomiasis, Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis, Rubella virus infection,Schistosomiasis, Hepatosplenic schistosomiasis, Sleeping sickness, Strongyloidiasis, Stuartbras disease, liver disease in syphilis, Toxoplasmosis, Tuberculosis, Tuberculous peritonitis, Tularemia, Whipple disease, Yellow fever virus infection

Musculoskeletal / Ortho No underlying causes
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional / Metabolic

Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Dubin-Johnson syndrome, Gilbert's syndrome, Hemochromatosis, Hypoalbuminemia, Kwashiorkor, Rotor's syndrome, VLCAD deficiency, Wilson's Disease

Obstetric/Gynecologic

Meigs' syndrome, Mirror syndrome

Oncologic

Anasarca, Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, Angiosarcoma of the liver, Bladder cancer, Cholangiocarcinoma, Cirrhosis of liver, Colorectal cancer, Desmoplastic small round cell tumor, Esophageal cancer, Liver cancer, Liver cirrhosis, Lung cancer, Meig's syndrome, Metastasis, Ovarian cancer, Pancreatic cancer, Pelvic region cancers, Pseudomyxoma peritonei, Stomach cancer, WAGR syndrome, Wilms tumor, Yolk sac tumor,

Opthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose / Toxicity Vitamin A toxicity
Psychiatric Maternal/fetal abuse
Pulmonary

Cor pulmonale, Lung cancer, Mesothelioma, Nephrotic syndrome, Pulmonary hypertension

Renal / Electrolyte

Hepatorenal syndrome, Nephrotic syndrome

Rheum / Immune / Allergy

Chronic bacterial infection, Erythroblastosis fetalis, Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, Eosinophilic peritonitis, Hemolytic disease of the newborn, Hemolytic anemia, Hepatic venoocclusive disease with immunodeficiency, Hepatoma, Immunoproliferative diseases, Primary biliary cirrhosis, Systemic lupus erythematosus

Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Bladder rupture
Urologic Posterior urethral valves, Ureterocele, Lower ureteral stenosis, Ureteral atresia, Imperforate hymen, Bladder rupture
Miscellaneous

Hypervolemia, Idiopathic, Metastasis, Obesity hypoventilation syndrome, POEMS syndrome

Causes in Alphabetical Order

The unnamed parameter 2= is no longer supported. Please see the documentation for {{columns-list}}.
3


References

  1. ↑ Sun CC, Keene CL, Nagey DA (1990). "Hepatic fibrosis in congenital cytomegalovirus infection: with fetal ascites and pulmonary hypoplasia". Pediatr Pathol. 10 (4): 641–6. PMID 2164662.
  2. ↑ Stocker JT (1985). "Congenital cytomegalovirus infection presenting as massive ascites with secondary pulmonary hypoplasia". Hum. Pathol. 16 (11): 1173–5. PMID 2997019.
  3. ↑ Patton WL, Lutz AM, Willmann JK, Callen P, Barkovich AJ, Gooding CA (1998). "Systemic spread of meconium peritonitis". Pediatr Radiol. 28 (9): 714–6. doi:10.1007/s002470050449. PMID 9732503.
  4. ↑ Dirkes K, Crombleholme TM, Craigo SD, Latchaw LA, Jacir NN, Harris BH, D'Alton ME (1995). "The natural history of meconium peritonitis diagnosed in utero". J. Pediatr. Surg. 30 (7): 979–82. PMID 7472957.
  5. ↑ Son M, Walsh CA, Baxi LV (2010). "Prenatal diagnosis of urinary ascites in a fetus with meningomyelocele". Fetal. Diagn. Ther. 28 (1): 61–4. doi:10.1159/000312405. PMID 20389051.
  6. ↑ Spriggs, DW; Brantley, RE (1977). "Thoracic and abdominal extravasation: a complication of hyperalimentation in infants". American Journal of Roentgenology. 128 (3): 419–422. doi:10.2214/ajr.128.3.419. ISSN 0361-803X.
  7. ↑ Hepworth RC, Milstein JM (1984). "The transected urachus: an unusual cause of neonatal ascites". Pediatrics. 73 (3): 397–400. PMID 6701064.
  8. ↑ Keller M, Scholl-Buergi S, Sergi C, Theurl I, Weiss G, Unsinn KM, Trawöger R (2008). "An unusual case of intrauterine symptomatic neonatal liver failure". Klin Padiatr. 220 (1): 32–6. doi:10.1055/s-2007-970591. PMID 18172830.
  9. ↑ Gillan JE, Lowden JA, Gaskin K, Cutz E (1984). "Congenital ascites as a presenting sign of lysosomal storage disease". J. Pediatr. 104 (2): 225–31. PMID 6420531.
  10. ↑ Gil Z, Beni-Adani L, Siomin V, Nagar H, Dvir R, Constantini S (2001). "Ascites following ventriculoperitoneal shunting in children with chiasmatic-hypothalamic glioma". Childs Nerv Syst. 17 (7): 395–8. PMID 11465792.
  11. ↑ Goodman GM, Gourley GR (1988). "Ascites complicating ventriculoperitoneal shunts". J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 7 (5): 780–2. PMID 3054040.
  12. ↑ Zegarra A, García C, Piscoya A, de Los Ríos R, Luis Pinto J, Mayo N, Huerta-Mercado J (2009). "[Eosinophilic enteritis as a rare cause of ascites: case report]". Rev Gastroenterol Peru (in Spanish; Castilian). 29 (3): 272–5. PMID 19898601.
  13. ↑ Caine Y, Deckelbaum RJ, Weizman Z, Lijovetsky G, Schiller M (1984). "Congenital hepatic fibrosis--unusual presentations". Arch. Dis. Child. 59 (11): 1094–6. PMC 1628818. PMID 6391392.

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