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{{Systemic lupus erythematosus}}
{{Systemic lupus erythematosus}}


{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{RT}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{MIR}} {{RT}}


==Overview==
==Overview==
The mainstay of therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is to control disease activity and prevent organ damage. The treatment choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) varies based on the severity of the disease and symptoms. Generally, all the patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with [[hydroxychloroquine]] regardless of the level of their disease. Other [[Pharmacology|pharmacologic]] medical therapies for SLE include [[glucocorticoids]] like oral [[prednisone]] or [[Intravenous therapy|intravenous]] [[methylprednisolone]], [[Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAIDs]] like [[celecoxib]], and [[immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[mycophenolate]], [[cyclophosphamide]], or [[rituximab]], particularly in severe cases. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE), if presented separately without any other system involvement, can be treated with [[Topical steroid|topical corticosteroids]]. Other organ-related complications of SLE should be treated separately.
The mainstay of therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is to control disease activity and prevent organ damage. The treatment of choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) varies based on the severity of the disease and symptoms. Generally, all the patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with [[hydroxychloroquine]] regardless of the level of their disease. Other [[Pharmacology|pharmacologic]] medical therapies for SLE include [[glucocorticoids]] like oral [[prednisone]] or [[Intravenous therapy|intravenous]] [[methylprednisolone]], [[Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug|NSAIDs]] like [[celecoxib]], and [[immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[mycophenolate]], [[cyclophosphamide]], or [[rituximab]], particularly in severe cases. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE), if presented separately without any other system involvement, can be treated with [[Topical steroid|topical corticosteroids]]. Other organ-related complications of SLE should be treated separately.
 
==Medical Therapy==
==Medical Therapy==
Treatment goals in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) include:
Treatment goals in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) include:
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===== General treatment =====
===== General treatment =====
* [[Hydroxychloroquine]]: 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses
* [[Hydroxychloroquine]]: 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses.
** Generally, all the patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with [[hydroxychloroquine]] regardless of the level of their disease
** Generally, all patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with [[hydroxychloroquine]] regardless of the severity of the disease.
The treatment choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is varied based on the severity of the disease and symptoms:
The treatment choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is varied based on the severity of the disease and symptoms:
* Mild cases are defined as disease pattern with one or two organ involvement.
* Moderate cases are defined as more than 2 organ involvement during disease flares with low grade of involvement and complications or one or two organ involvement with more extensive involvements.
* Severe cases are defined as presentation of the disease with life threatening complications and multiple (more than 2) organ involvements.
* Severe cases are defined as presentation of the disease with life threatening complications and multiple (more than 2) organ involvements.
* Mild cases are defined as disease pattern in which body just makes a small attack on just one or two organs.
* Moderate cases are defined as more than 2 organ involvement during disease flares with low grade of involvement and complications or one or two organ involvement with more extensive involvements.


== Severe disease ==
== Severe disease ==
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] (oral): 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses '''AND''' [[methylprednisolone]] as [[intravenous]] "pulse"; 0.5 to 1 g/day for three days in acutely ill patients, or 1 to 2 mg/kg/day in more stable patients
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses '''AND''' [[methylprednisolone]] as [[intravenous]] "pulse"; 0.5 to 1 g/day for three days in acutely ill patients, or 1 to 2 mg/kg/day in more stable patients
** Alternative regimen(1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] (oral): 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses '''AND''' [[prednisone]] oral; 40-60 mg/day
* Alternative regimen(1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses '''AND''' [[prednisone]] oral; 40-60 mg/day
* Alternative regimen (2): [[Mycophenolate]]  
* Alternative regimen (2): [[Mycophenolate]]  
** For induction: 1 g twice daily for 6 months in combination with a [[glucocorticoid]]
** For induction: 1 g twice daily for 6 months in combination with a [[glucocorticoid]]
** For maintenance: 0.5-3 g daily or 1 g twice daily
** For maintenance: 0.5-3 g daily or 1 g twice daily
*** Initial period of intensive [[immunosuppressive therapy]] (induction therapy) to control the disease and halt tissue injury
*** Initial period of intensive [[immunosuppressive therapy]] (induction therapy) to control the disease and halt tissue injury
* Alternative regimen (3): [[Cyclophosphamide]] IV: 500 mg once every 2 weeks for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 once every month for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 every month for 6 months, then every 3 months for a total of at least 2.5 years
* Alternative regimen (3): [[Cyclophosphamide]] IV 500 mg once every 2 weeks for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 once every month for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 every month for 6 months, then every 3 months for a total of at least 2.5 years
* Alternative regimen (4): [[Rituximab]] IV: 375 mg/m2 once weekly for 4 doses or 1,000 mg (flat dose) on days 0 and 15 or 500 to 1,000 mg on days 1 and 15
* Alternative regimen (4): [[Rituximab]] IV: 375 mg/m2 once weekly for 4 doses or 1,000 mg (flat dose) on days 0 and 15 or 500 to 1,000 mg on days 1 and 15


== Less Severe (mild and moderate) disease ==
== Less Severe (mild and moderate) disease ==
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] (oral): 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Hydroxychloroquine]] PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses
* Preferred regimen (2): [[Prednisone]] (oral) low doses of 10 mg/d or less for a short term therapy
* Preferred regimen (2): [[Prednisone]] PO low doses of 10 mg/d or less for a short term therapy
** For milder SLE
** For milder SLE
** For treatment of [[cutaneous]] and musculoskeletal symptoms not responding to other therapies
** For treatment of [[cutaneous]] and musculoskeletal symptoms not responding to other therapies
** It should be tapered once [[hydroxychloroquine]] has taken effect
** It should be tapered once [[hydroxychloroquine]] has taken effect
* Alternative regimen (1): [[Azathioprine]] (oral) initial 2 mg/kg/day; may reduce to 1.5 mg/kg/day after 1 month
* Alternative regimen (1): [[Azathioprine]] PO initial 2 mg/kg/day; may reduce to 1.5 mg/kg/day after 1 month
** Can be used to control symptoms
** Can be used to control symptoms
* Alternative regimen (2):  [[Methotrexate]] (oral) initial therapy with 7.5 mg once weekly; may increase by 2.5 mg increments weekly
* Alternative regimen (2):  [[Methotrexate]] PO initial therapy with 7.5 mg once weekly; may increase by 2.5 mg increments weekly
** Can be used to control symptoms
** Can be used to control symptoms


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===== Fever management<ref name="pmid27529058">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jordan N, D'Cruz D |title=Current and emerging treatment options in the management of lupus |journal=Immunotargets Ther |volume=5 |issue= |pages=9–20 |year=2016 |pmid=27529058 |pmc=4970629 |doi=10.2147/ITT.S40675 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24830791">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cobo-Ibáñez T, Loza-Santamaría E, Pego-Reigosa JM, Marqués AO, Rúa-Figueroa I, Fernández-Nebro A, Cáliz Cáliz R, López Longo FJ, Muñoz-Fernández S |title=Efficacy and safety of rituximab in the treatment of non-renal systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review |journal=Semin. Arthritis Rheum. |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=175–85 |year=2014 |pmid=24830791 |doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2014.04.002 |url=}}</ref> =====
===== Fever management<ref name="pmid27529058">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jordan N, D'Cruz D |title=Current and emerging treatment options in the management of lupus |journal=Immunotargets Ther |volume=5 |issue= |pages=9–20 |year=2016 |pmid=27529058 |pmc=4970629 |doi=10.2147/ITT.S40675 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24830791">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cobo-Ibáñez T, Loza-Santamaría E, Pego-Reigosa JM, Marqués AO, Rúa-Figueroa I, Fernández-Nebro A, Cáliz Cáliz R, López Longo FJ, Muñoz-Fernández S |title=Efficacy and safety of rituximab in the treatment of non-renal systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review |journal=Semin. Arthritis Rheum. |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=175–85 |year=2014 |pmid=24830791 |doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2014.04.002 |url=}}</ref> =====
* Preferred regimen: [[Celecoxib]] (oral) 100 to 200 mg twice daily
* Preferred regimen: [[Celecoxib]] PO 100 to 200 mg twice daily
** For [[fever]] management even in SLE patients with [[Sulfa allergy|“sulfa” allergy]]
** For [[fever]] management even in SLE patients with [[Sulfa allergy|“sulfa” allergy]]
* Alternative regimen: [[Acetaminophen]] 1000 mg every 6 hours; maximum daily dose: 3000 mg daily 
* Alternative regimen: [[Acetaminophen]] 1000 mg every 6 hours; maximum daily dose: 3000 mg daily 


==== Raynaud phenomenon treatment<ref name="pmid3691593">{{cite journal |vauthors=Challenor VF, Waller DG, Francis DA, Francis JL, Mani R, Roath S |title=Nisoldipine in primary Raynaud's phenomenon |journal=Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |year=1987 |pmid=3691593 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ====
==== Raynaud's phenomenon treatment<ref name="pmid3691593">{{cite journal |vauthors=Challenor VF, Waller DG, Francis DA, Francis JL, Mani R, Roath S |title=Nisoldipine in primary Raynaud's phenomenon |journal=Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |year=1987 |pmid=3691593 |doi= |url=}}</ref> ====
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Calcium channel blocker]] ([[nifedipine]]) 10 to 30 mg 3 times daily  
* Preferred regimen (1): [[Calcium channel blocker]] ([[nifedipine]]) 10 to 30 mg 3 times daily  
* Preferred regimen (2): Antiplatelet therapy with low-dose [[aspirin]] (75 or 81 mg/day) in all patients with secondary [[Raynaud phenomenon]]
* Preferred regimen (2): Antiplatelet therapy with low-dose [[aspirin]] (75 or 81 mg/day) in all patients with secondary [[Raynaud phenomenon]]
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** Inadequate response to a [[CCB]]
** Inadequate response to a [[CCB]]
** A [[Sildenafil|PDE inhibitor]] is not available, effective, or well-tolerated
** A [[Sildenafil|PDE inhibitor]] is not available, effective, or well-tolerated
* Alternative regimen (3): Intravenous (IV) infusions of a [[Prostaglandin|prostaglandin (PG)]] especially [[Prostacyclin|prostacyclin (PGI2) analogue]] for extremely severe patients with [[Raynaud's phenomenon|raynaud phenomenon]]<ref name="pmid6890719">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pardy BJ, Hoare MC, Eastcott HH, Miles CC, Needham TN, Harbourne T, Ellis BW |title=Prostaglandin E1 in severe Raynaud's phenomenon |journal=Surgery |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=953–65 |year=1982 |pmid=6890719 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  
* Alternative regimen (3): Intravenous (IV) infusions of a [[Prostaglandin|prostaglandin (PG)]] especially [[Prostacyclin|prostacyclin (PGI2) analogue]] for extremely severe patients with [[Raynaud's phenomenon|raynaud's phenomenon]]<ref name="pmid6890719">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pardy BJ, Hoare MC, Eastcott HH, Miles CC, Needham TN, Harbourne T, Ellis BW |title=Prostaglandin E1 in severe Raynaud's phenomenon |journal=Surgery |volume=92 |issue=6 |pages=953–65 |year=1982 |pmid=6890719 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  


===== Chronic pain management<ref name="pmid24938194">{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Franco M, Guzzo MP, Spinelli FR, Atzeni F, Sarzi-Puttini P, Conti F, Iannuccelli C |title=Pain and systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Reumatismo |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=33–8 |year=2014 |pmid=24938194 |doi= |url=}}</ref> =====
===== Chronic pain management<ref name="pmid24938194">{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Franco M, Guzzo MP, Spinelli FR, Atzeni F, Sarzi-Puttini P, Conti F, Iannuccelli C |title=Pain and systemic lupus erythematosus |journal=Reumatismo |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=33–8 |year=2014 |pmid=24938194 |doi= |url=}}</ref> =====
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*** Discontinue treatment in the absence of disease activity   
*** Discontinue treatment in the absence of disease activity   
* Alternative regimen (1): [[Calcineurin inhibitor|Topical calcineurin inhibitor]] such as [[tacrolimus]] 0.1% ointment or [[pimecrolimus]] 1% cream   
* Alternative regimen (1): [[Calcineurin inhibitor|Topical calcineurin inhibitor]] such as [[tacrolimus]] 0.1% ointment or [[pimecrolimus]] 1% cream   
* Preferred regimen (2): Intra-lesional [[corticosteroid]] injections for DLE or SCLE if an acute flare of DLE or SCLE doesn't respond to [[Topical steroid|topical steroid therapy]] for two to four week   
* Preferred regimen (2): Intralesional [[corticosteroid]] injections for DLE or SCLE if an acute flare of DLE or SCLE doesn't respond to [[Topical steroid|topical steroid therapy]] for two to four week   
* Alternative regimen (2): Systemic medications; [[hydroxychloroquine]] 200 to 400 mg/day for at least six weeks
* Alternative regimen (2): Systemic medications; [[hydroxychloroquine]] 200 to 400 mg/day for at least six weeks
** After improvement it should be decreased to 200 mg/day for maintenance therapy   
** After improvement it should be decreased to 200 mg/day for maintenance therapy   
Line 89: Line 90:
* Aggressive [[antihypertensive therapy]] with [[blood pressure]] goal of 130/85
* Aggressive [[antihypertensive therapy]] with [[blood pressure]] goal of 130/85
* In patients with [[proteinuria]], antiproteinuric therapy with blockade of the [[renin-angiotensin system]] include [[ACEIs]] and [[ARBs]]:
* In patients with [[proteinuria]], antiproteinuric therapy with blockade of the [[renin-angiotensin system]] include [[ACEIs]] and [[ARBs]]:
** [[ACE inhibitor|ACE inhibitors]]; [[captopril]] (oral): 25 mg 3 times daily
** [[ACE inhibitor|ACE inhibitors]]; [[captopril]] PO 25 mg 3 times daily
*** Antiproteinuric effect 
*** Antiproteinuric effect 
** [[ARBs]]; [[losartan]] (oral) initial: 50 mg once daily; can be increased to 100 mg once daily based on [[blood pressure]] response
** [[ARBs]]; [[losartan]] PO initial: 50 mg once daily; can be increased to 100 mg once daily based on [[blood pressure]] response
*** Slowing progression of [[GFR]] decline;
*** Slowing progression of [[GFR]] decline;
* [[Lipid]] lowering with [[statin therapy]] with the goal of [[LDL]]< 130
* [[Lipid]] lowering with [[statin therapy]] with the goal of [[LDL]]< 130


* Diffuse or focal proliferative LN:
* Diffuse or focal proliferative LN:
** Preferred regimen: [[Immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[glucocorticoids]] plus either [[Intravenous therapy|intravenous]] or oral [[Mycophenolate sodium|mycophenolate mofetil]]: 0.5 g of [[Mycophenolate sodium|mycophenolate mofetil]] twice daily for the first week, then 1 g twice daily for the second week, and there after increase the dose to 1.5 g twice daily
** Preferred regimen: [[Immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[glucocorticoids]] plus either [[Intravenous therapy|intravenous]] or oral [[Mycophenolate sodium|mycophenolate mofetil]]: 0.5 g of [[Mycophenolate sodium|mycophenolate mofetil]] twice daily for the first week, then 1 g twice daily for the second week, and thereafter increase the dose to 1.5 g twice daily
** Alternative regimen: [[Immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[glucocorticoids]] plus IV [[cyclophosphamide]] 500 mg every two weeks for a total of six doses
** Alternative regimen: [[Immunosuppressive therapy]] with [[glucocorticoids]] plus IV [[cyclophosphamide]] 500 mg every two weeks for a total of six doses


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===== Considerations<ref name="pmid25778500" /> =====
===== Considerations<ref name="pmid25778500" /> =====
* Appropriate adjunct therapy:
* Appropriate adjunct therapy:
** [[Vitamin D]] and [[calcium supplement]]<nowiki/>s for preventing [[osteoporosis]] in patients using [[corticosteroids]]
** [[Vitamin D]] and [[calcium supplement|calcium supplements]]<nowiki/> for preventing [[osteoporosis]] in patients using [[corticosteroids]]
** [[Antihypertensive drugs]] and [[statins]] were also recommended in patients using [[corticosteroids]]
** [[Antihypertensive drugs]] and [[statins]] were also recommended in patients using [[corticosteroids]]
* Adverse effects: Cutaneous [[atrophy]] is a potential side effect of the long-term use of [[Topical steroid|topical steroids]]
* Adverse effects: Cutaneous [[atrophy]] is a potential side effect of the long-term use of [[Topical steroid|topical steroids]]

Latest revision as of 18:39, 23 August 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mahshid Mir, M.D. [2] Raviteja Guddeti, M.B.B.S. [3]

Overview

The mainstay of therapy for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is to control disease activity and prevent organ damage. The treatment of choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) varies based on the severity of the disease and symptoms. Generally, all the patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with hydroxychloroquine regardless of the level of their disease. Other pharmacologic medical therapies for SLE include glucocorticoids like oral prednisone or intravenous methylprednisolone, NSAIDs like celecoxib, and immunosuppressive therapy with mycophenolate, cyclophosphamide, or rituximab, particularly in severe cases. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE), if presented separately without any other system involvement, can be treated with topical corticosteroids. Other organ-related complications of SLE should be treated separately.

Medical Therapy

Treatment goals in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) include:

  • Ensure long-term survival
  • Achieve the lowest possible disease activity
  • Prevent organ damage
  • Minimize drug toxicity
  • Improve quality of life
General treatment
  • Hydroxychloroquine: 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses.
    • Generally, all patients with any type of SLE manifestation should be treated with hydroxychloroquine regardless of the severity of the disease.

The treatment choice for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is varied based on the severity of the disease and symptoms:

  • Mild cases are defined as disease pattern with one or two organ involvement.
  • Moderate cases are defined as more than 2 organ involvement during disease flares with low grade of involvement and complications or one or two organ involvement with more extensive involvements.
  • Severe cases are defined as presentation of the disease with life threatening complications and multiple (more than 2) organ involvements.

Severe disease

  • Preferred regimen (1): Hydroxychloroquine PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses AND methylprednisolone as intravenous "pulse"; 0.5 to 1 g/day for three days in acutely ill patients, or 1 to 2 mg/kg/day in more stable patients
  • Alternative regimen(1): Hydroxychloroquine PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses AND prednisone oral; 40-60 mg/day
  • Alternative regimen (2): Mycophenolate
    • For induction: 1 g twice daily for 6 months in combination with a glucocorticoid
    • For maintenance: 0.5-3 g daily or 1 g twice daily
  • Alternative regimen (3): Cyclophosphamide IV 500 mg once every 2 weeks for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 once every month for 6 doses or 500 to 1,000 mg/m2 every month for 6 months, then every 3 months for a total of at least 2.5 years
  • Alternative regimen (4): Rituximab IV: 375 mg/m2 once weekly for 4 doses or 1,000 mg (flat dose) on days 0 and 15 or 500 to 1,000 mg on days 1 and 15

Less Severe (mild and moderate) disease

  • Preferred regimen (1): Hydroxychloroquine PO 200 to 400 mg daily as a single daily dose or in 2 divided doses
  • Preferred regimen (2): Prednisone PO low doses of 10 mg/d or less for a short term therapy
    • For milder SLE
    • For treatment of cutaneous and musculoskeletal symptoms not responding to other therapies
    • It should be tapered once hydroxychloroquine has taken effect
  • Alternative regimen (1): Azathioprine PO initial 2 mg/kg/day; may reduce to 1.5 mg/kg/day after 1 month
    • Can be used to control symptoms
  • Alternative regimen (2): Methotrexate PO initial therapy with 7.5 mg once weekly; may increase by 2.5 mg increments weekly
    • Can be used to control symptoms

Other organ specific treatments

Fever management[1][2]

Raynaud's phenomenon treatment[3]

Chronic pain management[5]
  • Moderate pain should be treated with mild prescription opiates such as:
  • Moderate to severe chronic pain should be treated with stronger opioids such as:
    • Preferred regimen (1): Hydrocodone: Single doses >40 mg or >60 mg with a total daily dose ≥80 mg
    • Preferred regimen (2): Oxycodone: 5 to 15 mg every 4 to 6 hours as needed
    • Alternative regimen (1): MS Contin: Opioid naive patients can have 5 to 10 mg every 4 hours; usual dosage range between 5 to 15 mg every 4 hours
      • Higher initial doses in patients with prior opioid exposure
    • Alternative regimen (2): Methadone: Maximum initial dose 30 mg
    • Alternative regimen (3): Fentanyl Duragesic Transdermal patch: A convenient treatment option for lupus chronic pain. It has a long lasting effect as well
Cutaneous lupus erythematosus[6][7][8][9][10]
Lupus nephritis treatment[11][12][13]
  • Severe active disease: 
    • Preferred regimen: Glucocorticoid therapy is initiated with intravenous pulse methylprednisolone (250 mg to 1000 mg given over 30 minutes daily for three days) to induce a rapid immunosuppressive effect, followed by conventional doses  
    • Alternative regimen: Conventional doses of oral glucocorticoids (eg, 0.5 to 1 mg/kg per day of prednisone) without a pulse.
      • Oral prednisolone at a dose of 60 mg/day, tapered every two weeks by 10 mg/day until 40 mg/day is reached, then tapered by 5 mg/day until 10 mg/day is reached 
Considerations[13]

References

  1. ↑ Jordan N, D'Cruz D (2016). "Current and emerging treatment options in the management of lupus". Immunotargets Ther. 5: 9–20. doi:10.2147/ITT.S40675. PMC 4970629. PMID 27529058.
  2. ↑ Cobo-Ibáñez T, Loza-Santamaría E, Pego-Reigosa JM, Marqués AO, Rúa-Figueroa I, Fernández-Nebro A, Cáliz Cáliz R, López Longo FJ, Muñoz-Fernández S (2014). "Efficacy and safety of rituximab in the treatment of non-renal systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review". Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 44 (2): 175–85. doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2014.04.002. PMID 24830791.
  3. ↑ Challenor VF, Waller DG, Francis DA, Francis JL, Mani R, Roath S (1987). "Nisoldipine in primary Raynaud's phenomenon". Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 33 (1): 27–30. PMID 3691593.
  4. ↑ Pardy BJ, Hoare MC, Eastcott HH, Miles CC, Needham TN, Harbourne T, Ellis BW (1982). "Prostaglandin E1 in severe Raynaud's phenomenon". Surgery. 92 (6): 953–65. PMID 6890719.
  5. ↑ Di Franco M, Guzzo MP, Spinelli FR, Atzeni F, Sarzi-Puttini P, Conti F, Iannuccelli C (2014). "Pain and systemic lupus erythematosus". Reumatismo. 66 (1): 33–8. PMID 24938194.
  6. ↑ DOEGLAS HM (1964). "CHRONIC DISCOID LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS TREATED WITH TRIAMCINOLONE AND PLASTIC OCCLUSION". Dermatologica. 128: 384–6. PMID 14162995.
  7. ↑ Rothfield N, Sontheimer RD, Bernstein M (2006). "Lupus erythematosus: systemic and cutaneous manifestations". Clin. Dermatol. 24 (5): 348–62. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2006.07.014. PMID 16966017.
  8. ↑ Sárdy M, Ruzicka T, Kuhn A (2009). "Topical calcineurin inhibitors in cutaneous lupus erythematosus". Arch. Dermatol. Res. 301 (1): 93–8. doi:10.1007/s00403-008-0894-6. PMID 18797893.
  9. ↑ BJORNBERG A, HELLGREN L (1963). "Treatment of chronic discoid lupus erythematosus with fluocinolone acetonide ointment". Br. J. Dermatol. 75: 156–60. PMID 13971327.
  10. ↑ Ritschel WA, Hammer GV, Thompson GA (1978). "Pharmacokinetics of antimalarials and proposals for dosage regimens". Int J Clin Pharmacol Biopharm. 16 (9): 395–401. PMID 359493.
  11. ↑ Schwartz N, Goilav B, Putterman C (2014). "The pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of lupus nephritis". Curr Opin Rheumatol. 26 (5): 502–9. doi:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000089. PMC 4221732. PMID 25014039.
  12. ↑ Hogan J, Appel GB (2013). "Update on the treatment of lupus nephritis". Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 22 (2): 224–30. doi:10.1097/MNH.0b013e32835d921c. PMID 23328501.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Tunnicliffe DJ, Singh-Grewal D, Kim S, Craig JC, Tong A (2015). "Diagnosis, Monitoring, and Treatment of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Systematic Review of Clinical Practice Guidelines". Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 67 (10): 1440–52. doi:10.1002/acr.22591. PMID 25778500.

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