Kidney stone medical therapy: Difference between revisions

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{{Kidney stone}}
{{Kidney stone}}
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}
 
{{CMG}}; {{AE}}{{ADS}}
==Overview==
==Overview==
Supportive therapy for [disease name] includes [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and [therapy 3].
The treatment of nephrolithiasis involves different measures e.g non pharmacological measures consisting of increased fluid intake, straining an dietary restrictions. Pharmacological measures include pain relief using NSAIDs and opioids., helping passage of stone spontaneously with drugs like [[tamsulosin]] and [[nifedipine]]. The treatment of underlying cause and being specific to type of stones is very important.It involves treating [[Hyperparathyroidism medical therapy|primary hyperparathyroidism]] and [[Renal tubular acidosis]]. For those having high urinary calcium, [[Hydrochlorothiazide]] or [[Chlorthalidone]] are used. For recurrent stones and high urine [[uric acid]], [[Allopurinol]] is used. For recurrent stones and [[hypocitraturia]], [[Potassium citrate]] is sued to alkalinize the urine. For uric acid stones, alkalinizing urine with [[potassium citrate]]/[[potassium bicarbonate]] is done and if needed [[Allopurinol]] is also used. For struvite stones, medical therapy is not of much help, although urease inhibitors such as  [[Acetohydroxamic Acid|acetohydroxamic acid]] can be given in urease +ve etiology. For cysteine stones, again alkalinizing urine helps along with [[Tiopronin]]. The Urological consult is needed when stone >10 mm in diameter, uncontrolled pain, [[Anuria]], or there is [[Acute kidney injury]].
==Medical Therapy==
===Nephroliithiasis===


OR
==== '''Non pharmacological measures''' ====
* Increased fluid intake
* Straining
** Stone ≤5 mm can pass spontaneously.
** Passage of stone also depends on the site of stone<ref name="pmid10458343">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miller OF, Kane CJ |title=Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education |journal=J. Urol. |volume=162 |issue=3 Pt 1 |pages=688–90; discussion 690–1 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10458343 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* Evaluating diet as per the composition of stones, for example:
** Diet containing excess proteins can precipitate uric acid stones
** Diet containing excess [[phosphorus]] can cause struvite stone


The majority of cases of [disease name] are self-limited and require only supportive care.
==== '''Pharmacological measures''' ====
* Both NSAIDS and opiods are seen efficacious for the pain relief related to nephrolithiasis.<ref name="pmid15178585">{{cite journal |vauthors=Holdgate A, Pollock T |title=Systematic review of the relative efficacy of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioids in the treatment of acute renal colic |journal=BMJ |volume=328 |issue=7453 |pages=1401 |date=June 2004 |pmid=15178585 |pmc=421776 |doi=10.1136/bmj.38119.581991.55 |url=}}</ref>
* The combination works in effective pain relief.<ref name="pmid8759578">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cordell WH, Wright SW, Wolfson AB, Timerding BL, Maneatis TJ, Lewis RH, Bynum L, Nelson DR |title=Comparison of intravenous ketorolac, meperidine, and both (balanced analgesia) for renal colic |journal=Ann Emerg Med |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=151–8 |date=August 1996 |pmid=8759578 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* NSAIDS  should be stopped before undergoing [[Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy]] to reduce the risk of bleeding.


OR
===== Pain relief =====


[Disease name] is a medical emergency and requires prompt treatment.
====== Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) ======
* Parenteral regimen
** Preferred regimen (1): [[Ketorolac]] 60 mg as a single dose or 30 mg IM q6h
** Alternative regimen (1): [[Ketorolac]] 10 to 30 mg (as single dose) IM and then q4-6 h as needed (maximum: 120 mg/day)
** Alternative regimen (2): [[Ketorolac]] 30 mg as a single dose or 30 mg IV q6h (maximum: 120 mg/day)
* Oral regimen
** Preferred regimen (1): [[Ketorolac]] 20 mg, followed by 10 mg q4-6 h as needed; maximum: 40 mg/day; follows the parenteral dose ('''contraindicated''' in patients with [[renal failure]])
** Alternative regimen (1):[[Indomethacin]] 20 mg PO q8h 
** Alternative regimen (2):[[Indomethacin]] 40 mg PO q8-12h 
'''Opioids'''
* Parenteral regimen
** Preferred regimen (1): [[Morphine]] 5 mg IV q4h as needed


OR
===== Passage of stone =====
* The passage of stones depend on the size and location of the stone.<ref name="pmid104583432">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miller OF, Kane CJ |title=Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education |journal=J. Urol. |volume=162 |issue=3 Pt 1 |pages=688–90; discussion 690–1 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10458343 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid16406999">{{cite journal |vauthors=Parekattil SJ, Kumar U, Hegarty NJ, Williams C, Allen T, Teloken P, Leitão VA, Netto NR, Haber GP, Ballereau C, Villers A, Streem SB, White MD, Moran ME |title=External validation of outcome prediction model for ureteral/renal calculi |journal=J. Urol. |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=575–9 |date=February 2006 |pmid=16406999 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00244-2 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11756098">{{cite journal |vauthors=Coll DM, Varanelli MJ, Smith RC |title=Relationship of spontaneous passage of ureteral calculi to stone size and location as revealed by unenhanced helical CT |journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol |volume=178 |issue=1 |pages=101–3 |date=January 2002 |pmid=11756098 |doi=10.2214/ajr.178.1.1780101 |url=}}</ref>
* Stones ≤5 mm in diameter pass spontaneously.
* It decrease as the size grows and not likely for sizes ≥10 mm in diameter.
* Stones which are proximal are less likely to pass spontaneously.
* Oral regimen
** Preferred regimen (1):[[Tamsulosin]] 0.4 mg PO q24h until stone passage occurs or for up to 30 days<ref name="pmid20414396">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmed AF, Al-Sayed AY |title=Tamsulosin versus Alfuzosin in the Treatment of Patients with Distal Ureteral Stones: Prospective, Randomized, Comparative Study |journal=Korean J Urol |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=193–7 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20414396 |pmc=2855456 |doi=10.4111/kju.2010.51.3.193 |url=}}</ref>
** Preferred regimen (2):Used as adjuvant in [[Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy]]; [[Tamsulosin]] 0.4 mg PO q24h for 14 days to 3 months<ref name="pmid21802124">{{cite journal |vauthors=Vicentini FC, Mazzucchi E, Brito AH, Chedid Neto EA, Danilovic A, Srougi M |title=Adjuvant tamsulosin or nifedipine after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for renal stones: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial |journal=Urology |volume=78 |issue=5 |pages=1016–21 |date=November 2011 |pmid=21802124 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2011.04.062 |url=}}</ref>
** Preferred regimen (3): [[Nifedipine]] 10-30 mg  PO q8h for up to 4 weeks or until expulsion of lower stones<ref name="pmid21083640">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ye Z, Yang H, Li H, Zhang X, Deng Y, Zeng G, Chen L, Cheng Y, Yang J, Mi Q, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Guo H, He W, Chen Z |title=A multicentre, prospective, randomized trial: comparative efficacy of tamsulosin and nifedipine in medical expulsive therapy for distal ureteric stones with renal colic |journal=BJU Int. |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=276–9 |date=July 2011 |pmid=21083640 |doi=10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.09801.x |url=}}</ref>


The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is [therapy].
===== Type specific treatment =====
Treating the underlying cause is very important.
* '''Calcium stones'''
**Treating [[Hyperparathyroidism medical therapy|primary hyperparathyroidism]]
**Treating [[Renal tubular acidosis]]
**For those having high urinary calcium:
***Preferred regimen (1): [[Hydrochlorothiazide]] 50 mg PO q24h<ref name="pmid24857648">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pearle MS, Goldfarb DS, Assimos DG, Curhan G, Denu-Ciocca CJ, Matlaga BR, Monga M, Penniston KL, Preminger GM, Turk TM, White JR |title=Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline |journal=J. Urol. |volume=192 |issue=2 |pages=316–24 |date=August 2014 |pmid=24857648 |doi=10.1016/j.juro.2014.05.006 |url=}}</ref>
***Alternative regimen (1): [[Chlorthalidone]] 25 mg PO q24h<ref name="pmid24857648" />
**For recurrent stones and high urine [[uric acid]]:
***Preferred regimen (1): [[Allopurinol]] 200-300 mg  PO in single or divided doses
**For recurrent stones and [[hypocitraturia]]:<ref name="pmid37842842">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pak CY, Sakhaee K, Fuller C |title=Successful management of uric acid nephrolithiasis with potassium citrate |journal=Kidney Int. |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=422–8 |date=September 1986 |pmid=3784284 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
***Preferred regimen (1): [[Potassium citrate]] 15 mEq  extended release q12h in mild-to-moderate hypocitraturia (>150 mg urinary citrate); maximum dose: 100 mEq/day
***Alternative regimen (1): [[Potassium citrate]] 10 mEq  extended release q8h
***Preferred regimen (2): [[Potassium citrate]] 30 mEq extended release q12h in severe hypocitraturia (<150 mg/day urinary citrate); maximum dose: 100 mEq/day
***Alternative regimen (2): [[Potassium citrate]] 20 mEq  extended release q8h
*'''Uric acid stones'''
**Alkalinizing urine with [[potassium citrate]]<ref name="pmid37842842" />/[[potassium bicarbonate]]<ref name="pmid19911683">{{cite journal |vauthors=Trinchieri A, Esposito N, Castelnuovo C |title=Dissolution of radiolucent renal stones by oral alkalinization with potassium citrate/potassium bicarbonate |journal=Arch Ital Urol Androl |volume=81 |issue=3 |pages=188–91 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19911683 |doi= |url=}}</ref> as above<ref name="pmid20425021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kenny JE, Goldfarb DS |title=Update on the pathophysiology and management of uric acid renal stones |journal=Curr Rheumatol Rep |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=125–9 |date=April 2010 |pmid=20425021 |doi=10.1007/s11926-010-0089-y |url=}}</ref>
**Preferred regimen (1): [[Allopurinol]] 200-300 mg  PO in single or divided doses<ref name="pmid20425021" />
*'''Struvite stones'''
**Medical therapy is not of much help, although urease inhibitors can be given in urease +ve etiology
***Preferred regimen (1): [[Acetohydroxamic Acid]] 250 mg PO q6-8h for a total daily dose of 10 to 15 mg/kg/day; maximum dose: 1500 mg daily<ref>Wong H, Riehl RL, Griffith DP. Medical management and prevention of struvite stones. In: Kidney stones: Medical and surgical management, Coe FL, Favis MJ, Pak CC, et al (Eds), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia 1996.</ref>
*'''Cysteine stones'''
**Alkalinizing urine
**Preferred regimen (1):[[Tiopronin]] 800 mg/day PO in 3 divided doses; average dose: 1000 mg q24h<ref name="pmid24857648" />


OR
===== Urologic consult =====
 
* The Urological consult is needed in the following:<ref name="pmid11310648">{{cite journal |vauthors=Portis AJ, Sundaram CP |title=Diagnosis and initial management of kidney stones |journal=Am Fam Physician |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=1329–38 |date=April 2001 |pmid=11310648 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid14960744">{{cite journal |vauthors=Teichman JM |title=Clinical practice. Acute renal colic from ureteral calculus |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=350 |issue=7 |pages=684–93 |date=February 2004 |pmid=14960744 |doi=10.1056/NEJMcp030813 |url=}}</ref>
The optimal therapy for [malignancy name] depends on the stage at diagnosis.
** Stone >10 mm in diameter
 
** Uncontrolled pain
OR
** [[Anuria]]
 
** [[Acute kidney injury]]
[Therapy] is recommended among all patients who develop [disease name].
** Acute abdomen features like [[nausea and vomiting]]
 
** Signs of [[sepsis]]
OR
 
Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].
 
OR
 
Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].
 
OR
 
Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].
 
OR
 
Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].
==Medical Therapy==
*Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].
*Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].
*Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].
*Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].
===Nephroliithiasis===
'''Non pharmacological measures'''
====== Straining ======
** Stone ≤5 mm can pass spontaneously.
** Passage of stone also depends on the site of stone.<ref name="pmid10458343">{{cite journal |vauthors=Miller OF, Kane CJ |title=Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education |journal=J. Urol. |volume=162 |issue=3 Pt 1 |pages=688–90; discussion 690–1 |date=September 1999 |pmid=10458343 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
'''Pharmacological measures'''
* 2.1 '''Specific Organ system involv'''
*** Parenteral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 2 g IV q24h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 2 g IV q8h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 18–24 MU/day IV q4h for 14 (14–21) days
*** Oral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q8h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Preferred regimen (2): [[drug name]] 100 mg PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Preferred regimen (3): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q6h for 7–10 days 
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q12h for 14–21 days
**** Alternative regimen (3):[[drug name]] 500 mg PO q6h for 14–21 days
** 2.1.2 '''Pediatric'''
*** Parenteral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 50–75 mg/kg IV q24h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 2 g)
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 150–200 mg/kg/day IV q6–8h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 6 g per day)
**** Alternative regimen (2):  [[drug name]] 200,000–400,000 U/kg/day IV q4h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 18–24 million U per day) '<nowiki/>'''''(Contraindications/specific instructions)''''''
*** Oral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1):  [[drug name]] 50 mg/kg/day PO q8h for 14 (14–21) days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Preferred regimen (2): [[drug name]] '''(for children aged ≥ 8 years)''' 4 mg/kg/day PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 100 mg per dose)
**** Preferred regimen (3): [[drug name]] 30 mg/kg/day PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Alternative regimen (1):  [[drug name]] 10 mg/kg PO q6h 7–10 days  (maximum, 500 mg per day)
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 7.5 mg/kg PO q12h for 14–21 days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Alternative regimen (3): [[drug name]] 12.5 mg/kg PO q6h for 14–21 days  (maximum,500 mg per dose)
* 2.2  '<nowiki/>'''''Other Organ system involved 2''''''
*: '''Note (1):'''
*: '''Note (2)''':
*: '''Note (3):'''
** 2.2.1 '''Adult'''
*** Parenteral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 2 g IV q24h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 2 g IV q8h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 18–24 MU/day IV q4h for 14 (14–21) days
*** Oral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q8h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Preferred regimen (2): [[drug name]] 100 mg PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Preferred regimen (3): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q6h for 7–10 days 
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 500 mg PO q12h for 14–21 days
**** Alternative regimen (3):[[drug name]] 500 mg PO q6h for 14–21 days
** 2.2.2 '''Pediatric'''
*** Parenteral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1): [[drug name]] 50–75 mg/kg IV q24h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 2 g)
**** Alternative regimen (1): [[drug name]] 150–200 mg/kg/day IV q6–8h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 6 g per day)
**** Alternative regimen (2):  [[drug name]] 200,000–400,000 U/kg/day IV q4h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 18–24 million U per day)
*** Oral regimen
**** Preferred regimen (1):  [[drug name]] 50 mg/kg/day PO q8h for 14 (14–21) days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Preferred regimen (2): [[drug name]] 4 mg/kg/day PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days (maximum, 100 mg per dose)
**** Preferred regimen (3): [[drug name]] 30 mg/kg/day PO q12h for 14 (14–21) days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Alternative regimen (1):  [[drug name]] 10 mg/kg PO q6h 7–10 days  (maximum, 500 mg per day)
**** Alternative regimen (2): [[drug name]] 7.5 mg/kg PO q12h for 14–21 days  (maximum, 500 mg per dose)
**** Alternative regimen (3): [[drug name]] 12.5 mg/kg PO q6h for 14–21 days  (maximum,500 mg per dose)


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 01:47, 18 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Amandeep Singh M.D.[2]

Overview

The treatment of nephrolithiasis involves different measures e.g non pharmacological measures consisting of increased fluid intake, straining an dietary restrictions. Pharmacological measures include pain relief using NSAIDs and opioids., helping passage of stone spontaneously with drugs like tamsulosin and nifedipine. The treatment of underlying cause and being specific to type of stones is very important.It involves treating primary hyperparathyroidism and Renal tubular acidosis. For those having high urinary calcium, Hydrochlorothiazide or Chlorthalidone are used. For recurrent stones and high urine uric acid, Allopurinol is used. For recurrent stones and hypocitraturia, Potassium citrate is sued to alkalinize the urine. For uric acid stones, alkalinizing urine with potassium citrate/potassium bicarbonate is done and if needed Allopurinol is also used. For struvite stones, medical therapy is not of much help, although urease inhibitors such as acetohydroxamic acid can be given in urease +ve etiology. For cysteine stones, again alkalinizing urine helps along with Tiopronin. The Urological consult is needed when stone >10 mm in diameter, uncontrolled pain, Anuria, or there is Acute kidney injury.

Medical Therapy

Nephroliithiasis

Non pharmacological measures

  • Increased fluid intake
  • Straining
    • Stone ≤5 mm can pass spontaneously.
    • Passage of stone also depends on the site of stone[1]
  • Evaluating diet as per the composition of stones, for example:
    • Diet containing excess proteins can precipitate uric acid stones
    • Diet containing excess phosphorus can cause struvite stone

Pharmacological measures

  • Both NSAIDS and opiods are seen efficacious for the pain relief related to nephrolithiasis.[2]
  • The combination works in effective pain relief.[3]
  • NSAIDS should be stopped before undergoing Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy to reduce the risk of bleeding.
Pain relief
Non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS)
  • Parenteral regimen
    • Preferred regimen (1): Ketorolac 60 mg as a single dose or 30 mg IM q6h
    • Alternative regimen (1): Ketorolac 10 to 30 mg (as single dose) IM and then q4-6 h as needed (maximum: 120 mg/day)
    • Alternative regimen (2): Ketorolac 30 mg as a single dose or 30 mg IV q6h (maximum: 120 mg/day)
  • Oral regimen
    • Preferred regimen (1): Ketorolac 20 mg, followed by 10 mg q4-6 h as needed; maximum: 40 mg/day; follows the parenteral dose (contraindicated in patients with renal failure)
    • Alternative regimen (1):Indomethacin 20 mg PO q8h
    • Alternative regimen (2):Indomethacin 40 mg PO q8-12h

Opioids

  • Parenteral regimen
    • Preferred regimen (1): Morphine 5 mg IV q4h as needed
Passage of stone
  • The passage of stones depend on the size and location of the stone.[4][5][6]
  • Stones ≤5 mm in diameter pass spontaneously.
  • It decrease as the size grows and not likely for sizes ≥10 mm in diameter.
  • Stones which are proximal are less likely to pass spontaneously.
  • Oral regimen
Type specific treatment

Treating the underlying cause is very important.

Urologic consult

References

  1. ↑ Miller OF, Kane CJ (September 1999). "Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education". J. Urol. 162 (3 Pt 1): 688–90, discussion 690–1. PMID 10458343.
  2. ↑ Holdgate A, Pollock T (June 2004). "Systematic review of the relative efficacy of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioids in the treatment of acute renal colic". BMJ. 328 (7453): 1401. doi:10.1136/bmj.38119.581991.55. PMC 421776. PMID 15178585.
  3. ↑ Cordell WH, Wright SW, Wolfson AB, Timerding BL, Maneatis TJ, Lewis RH, Bynum L, Nelson DR (August 1996). "Comparison of intravenous ketorolac, meperidine, and both (balanced analgesia) for renal colic". Ann Emerg Med. 28 (2): 151–8. PMID 8759578.
  4. ↑ Miller OF, Kane CJ (September 1999). "Time to stone passage for observed ureteral calculi: a guide for patient education". J. Urol. 162 (3 Pt 1): 688–90, discussion 690–1. PMID 10458343.
  5. ↑ Parekattil SJ, Kumar U, Hegarty NJ, Williams C, Allen T, Teloken P, Leitão VA, Netto NR, Haber GP, Ballereau C, Villers A, Streem SB, White MD, Moran ME (February 2006). "External validation of outcome prediction model for ureteral/renal calculi". J. Urol. 175 (2): 575–9. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00244-2. PMID 16406999.
  6. ↑ Coll DM, Varanelli MJ, Smith RC (January 2002). "Relationship of spontaneous passage of ureteral calculi to stone size and location as revealed by unenhanced helical CT". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 178 (1): 101–3. doi:10.2214/ajr.178.1.1780101. PMID 11756098.
  7. ↑ Ahmed AF, Al-Sayed AY (March 2010). "Tamsulosin versus Alfuzosin in the Treatment of Patients with Distal Ureteral Stones: Prospective, Randomized, Comparative Study". Korean J Urol. 51 (3): 193–7. doi:10.4111/kju.2010.51.3.193. PMC 2855456. PMID 20414396.
  8. ↑ Vicentini FC, Mazzucchi E, Brito AH, Chedid Neto EA, Danilovic A, Srougi M (November 2011). "Adjuvant tamsulosin or nifedipine after extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for renal stones: a double blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial". Urology. 78 (5): 1016–21. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2011.04.062. PMID 21802124.
  9. ↑ Ye Z, Yang H, Li H, Zhang X, Deng Y, Zeng G, Chen L, Cheng Y, Yang J, Mi Q, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Guo H, He W, Chen Z (July 2011). "A multicentre, prospective, randomized trial: comparative efficacy of tamsulosin and nifedipine in medical expulsive therapy for distal ureteric stones with renal colic". BJU Int. 108 (2): 276–9. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.09801.x. PMID 21083640.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Pearle MS, Goldfarb DS, Assimos DG, Curhan G, Denu-Ciocca CJ, Matlaga BR, Monga M, Penniston KL, Preminger GM, Turk TM, White JR (August 2014). "Medical management of kidney stones: AUA guideline". J. Urol. 192 (2): 316–24. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2014.05.006. PMID 24857648.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Pak CY, Sakhaee K, Fuller C (September 1986). "Successful management of uric acid nephrolithiasis with potassium citrate". Kidney Int. 30 (3): 422–8. PMID 3784284.
  12. ↑ Trinchieri A, Esposito N, Castelnuovo C (September 2009). "Dissolution of radiolucent renal stones by oral alkalinization with potassium citrate/potassium bicarbonate". Arch Ital Urol Androl. 81 (3): 188–91. PMID 19911683.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Kenny JE, Goldfarb DS (April 2010). "Update on the pathophysiology and management of uric acid renal stones". Curr Rheumatol Rep. 12 (2): 125–9. doi:10.1007/s11926-010-0089-y. PMID 20425021.
  14. ↑ Wong H, Riehl RL, Griffith DP. Medical management and prevention of struvite stones. In: Kidney stones: Medical and surgical management, Coe FL, Favis MJ, Pak CC, et al (Eds), Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia 1996.
  15. ↑ Portis AJ, Sundaram CP (April 2001). "Diagnosis and initial management of kidney stones". Am Fam Physician. 63 (7): 1329–38. PMID 11310648.
  16. ↑ Teichman JM (February 2004). "Clinical practice. Acute renal colic from ureteral calculus". N. Engl. J. Med. 350 (7): 684–93. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp030813. PMID 14960744.

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