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==Overview==
==Overview==
Amnesia can classified based upon various neuropsychopathologies. It is important to consider the etiological, organic, progressive and clinical criteria in amnesia classification.
Amnesia can be divided into two broad groups, [[retrograde amnesia]] and [[anterograde amnesia]]. [[Retrograde amnesia]] is the loss of [[memory]] prior to the onset of amnesia and [[anterograde amnesia]] is the inability to form new [[memory]]. Other types of amnesia are [[Psychological]] including [[repressive amnesia]] and [[dissociative fugue]], [[infantile]] amnesia, [[neurological]] amnesia ([[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Pick's disease]]), post-[[traumatic]] Amnesia, [[drug]]-Induced Amnesia, [[transient global amnesia]].[[Memory]] can also be divided into two groups depending on the duration, short-term [[memory]] and long-term [[memory]].
 
==Classification==
==Classification==
'''Temporal classification of amnesia:'''
*Amnesia can be divided into two broad groups:
**[[Anterograde amnesia]]: The inability to form new [[memory]]. Past [[memory]] is intact.
**[[Retrograde amnesia]]: The loss of [[memory]] prior to the [[onset]] of amnesia. Patient can form new [[memories]].
*[[Memory]] can also be divided into groups depending on the duration:
**Short-term [[memory]] are for short period of time and use existing [[neuronal]] network.
**Long-term [[memory]] are long lasting and are formed by structural/functional changes in [[neuronal]] network.<ref name="pmid25301080">{{cite journal| author=Bisaz R, Travaglia A, Alberini CM| title=The neurobiological bases of memory formation: from physiological conditions to psychopathology. | journal=Psychopathology | year= 2014 | volume= 47 | issue= 6 | pages= 347-56 | pmid=25301080 | doi=10.1159/000363702 | pmc=4246028 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25301080  }} </ref>


* In '''[[anterograde amnesia]]''', new events contained in the immediate memory are not transferred to the permanent as long-term memory.  The sufferer will not be able to remember anything that occurs after the onset of this type of amnesia for more than a brief period following the event.
{| class="wikitable"
 
!align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF | '''Types of Amnesia'''
* '''[[Retrograde amnesia]]''' is the inability to recall some memory or memories of the past, beyond ordinary forgetfulness.
! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF| '''Main Features'''
 
|-
:These terms are used to categorize patterns of symptoms, rather than to indicate a particular cause or [[etiology]]. Both categories of amnesia can occur together in the same patient, and commonly result from drug effects or damage to brain regions most closely associated with [[episodic memory|episodic]]/[[declarative memory]]: the medial [[temporal lobe]]s and the [[hippocampus]].  
| [[Dissociative Amnesia]]         ||Temporary, [[episodic]] [[retrograde memory loss]] without structural [[brain]] damage. Cause is [[psychological]] in origin. [[Dissociative Amnesia]] is also referred to as [[psychological]] amnesia. It has variable presentation:
 
*[[Repressed amnesia]] is seen in [[patients]] where they are unable to recall a stressful or traumatic incident from the past due to [[psychological]] [[defense mechanism]].  
:An example of mixed retrograde and anterograde amnesia may be a motorcyclist unable to recall driving his motorbike prior to his head injury (retrograde amnesia) and an inability to recall the hospital ward where he is told he had conversations with family over the past two days (anterograde amnesia).
*[[Dissociative fugue]] has been observed in these [[patients]] where the identity and [[memory]] is lost. It is reversible and has variable time duration.<ref name="pmid18086739">{{cite journal| author=Bourget D, Whitehurst L| title=Amnesia and crime. | journal=J Am Acad Psychiatry Law | year= 2007 | volume= 35 | issue= 4 | pages= 469-80 | pmid=18086739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18086739  }} </ref><ref> American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5</ref>
 
  |-
'''Other types of amnesia'''
|[[Transient global amnesia]] || Sudden episodic loss of [[anterograde]] and partial [[retrograde]] [[memory]]. Usually last less than twenty four hours.<ref name="pmid19031042">{{cite journal| author=Profice P, Rizzello V, Pennestrì F, Pilato F, Della Marca G, Sestito A | display-authors=etal| title=Transient global amnesia during transoesophageal echocardiogram. | journal=Neurol Sci | year= 2008 | volume= 29 | issue= 6 | pages= 477-9 | pmid=19031042 | doi=10.1007/s10072-008-1034-y | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19031042  }} </ref>
*'''[[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]]''' results from a psychological cause as opposed to direct damage to the brain caused by head injury, physical trauma or disease. [[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]] can include:
|-
 
| [[Post-traumatic Amnesia]] || Amnesia that follows [[head]] [[trauma]] could be temporary or permanent. The span of memory loss is uncertain it could present with retrograde, anterograde or combined. Extent of [[injury]] and duration of [[loss of consciousness]] are important [[prognostic]] factors in determining the severity of amnesia. <ref name="pmid11475324">{{cite journal| author=Leclerc S, Lassonde M, Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Johnston KM| title=Recommendations for grading of concussion in athletes. | journal=Sports Med | year= 2001 | volume= 31 | issue= 8 | pages= 629-36 | pmid=11475324 | doi=10.2165/00007256-200131080-00007 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11475324  }} </ref>
:*'''[[Repressed memory]]''' refers to the inability to recall information, usually about stressful or traumatic events in a persons' life, such as a violent attack or rape.  The memory is stored in the long term memory, but access to it is impaired because of psychological defense mechanisms.  People retain the capacity to learn new information and later there may be some partial or complete recovery of memory.  This contrasts with anterograde amnesia caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or alcohol, where an experience was prevented from being transferred from temporary to permanent memory storage because it was never stored in the first place.
|-
 
| [[Infantile]] Amnesia|| Also known as childhood amnesia. Early childhood memory is lost, usually up to the age of fours year. Influenced by cultural norms and [[sexual]] [[repression]].<ref name="pmid12653489">{{cite journal| author=Wang Q| title=Infantile amnesia reconsidered: a cross-cultural analysis. | journal=Memory | year= 2003 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 65-80 | pmid=12653489 | doi=10.1080/741938173 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12653489  }} </ref>
:*'''[[Fugue state|Dissociative Fugue]]''' (''formerly'' Psychogenic Fugue) is also known as fugue state. It is caused by psychological trauma and is usually temporary, unresolved and therefore may return.  The [[Merck Manual]] defines it as "one or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home"[http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section15/chapter188/188c.jsp]. While popular in fiction, it is extremely rare.  
|-
 
| [[Drug]]-Induced Amnesia||[[Benzodiazepine]] are the most common group of [[drugs]] that can cause [[drug]]-induced amnesia, especially if used with [[alcohol]]. [[Memory]] loss could be long term or short term.<ref> Sadock, Benjamin J., and Virginia A. Sadock. Kaplan & Sadock's concise textbook of clinical psychiatry. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008. Print</ref> Amnesia is anterograde from the time the drug was introduced and patient has impairment in forming new memories. It is reversible upon discontinuation of the [[drug]].
:* '''Posthypnotic amnesia''' is where events during [[hypnosis]] are forgotten, or where past memories are unable to be recalled.
|-
 
| [[Neurological]] Amnesia||[[Alzheimer's Disease]], [[Pick's Disease]], [[Parkinson's Disease]]
:* '''[[Lacunar amnesia]]''' is the loss of memory about one specific event.
|-
 
| Amnesia in [[Korsakoff’s Syndrome]]|| Caused by [[thiamine]] [[deficiency]] due to prolonged [[alcohol]] use or severe [[malnutrition]]. [[Anterograde amnesia]], [[retrograde amnesia]], and [[confabulation]].<ref>Kolb, Bryan, and Ian Q. Whishaw. Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers, 2003. Print.</ref>
:* '''[[Childhood amnesia]]''' (also known as infantile amnesia) is the common inability to remember events from one's own childhood. Whilst [[Sigmund Freud]] attributed this to sexual repression, others have theorised that this may be due to [[language development]] or immature parts of the brain.
|-
 
| [[Selective Amnesia]] || Certain [[memory]] is lost. [[Patient]] may forget about certain relationships, talents, events, or [[traumatic]] incidents.
* '''[[Post-traumatic amnesia]]''' is generally due to a [[traumatic brain injury|head injury]] (e.g. a fall, a knock on the head). Traumatic amnesia is often transient, but may cause permanent anterograde, retrograde, or mixed type memory loss.  The extent of the period covered by the amnesia is related to the degree of injury and may give an indication of the prognosis for recovery of other functions.  [[Mild traumatic brain injury|Mild trauma]], such as a car accident that results in no more than mild whiplash, might cause the occupant of a car to have no memory of the moments just before the accident due to a brief interruption in the short to long-term memory transfer mechanism.
|-
 
|[[Epileptic]] Amnesia|| Observed in [[patients]] with [[temporal lobe]] [[epilepsy]].<ref name="pmid12244076">{{cite journal| author=Kopelman MD| title=Disorders of memory. | journal=Brain | year= 2002 | volume= 125 | issue= Pt 10 | pages= 2152-90 | pmid=12244076 | doi=10.1093/brain/awf229 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12244076  }} </ref> [[Anterograde amnesia]] with [[short-term memory]] loss.
* '''[[Transient global amnesia]]''' is a well-described medical and clinical phenomenon. This form of amnesia is distinct in that abnormalities in the [[hippocampus]] can sometimes be visualized using a special form of [[magnetic resonance imaging]] of the brain known as [[diffusion-weighted imaging]] (DWI). Symptoms typically last for less than a day and there is often no clear precipitating factor nor any other neurological deficits. The cause of this syndrome is not clear, hypotheses include transient reduced blood flow, possible seizure or an atypical type of migraine. Patients are typically amnestic of events more than a few minutes in the past, though immediate recall is usually preserved.
|-
 
|[[Lacunar amnesia]]|| [[Memory]] of a particular event is lost. [[Lacuna]] mean 'a gap', which refers to leaving 'a gap' in [[memory]].<ref name="pmid747264">{{cite journal| author=Benezech M, Leyssenne JP| title=[Lacunar amnesia and criminal behaviour : realities and medico-legal consequences]. | journal=Ann Med Psychol (Paris) | year= 1978 | volume= 136 | issue= 6-8 | pages= 918-29 | pmid=747264 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=747264  }} </ref>
*'''[[Source amnesia]]''' is a memory disorder in which someone can recall certain information, but they do not know where or how they obtained the information.
|}
 
*'''[[Memory distrust syndrome]]''' is a term invented by the psychologist [[Gisli Gudjonsson]] to describe a situation where someone is unable to trust their own memory.
 
*'''[[Blackout (Alcohol Related Amnesia)|Blackout phenomenon]]''' can be caused by excessive short-term alcohol consumption, resulting in anterograde amnesia.
 
*'''[[Korsakoff's syndrome]]''' can result from long-term alcoholism or malnutrition. It is caused by brain damage due to a Vitamin B1 deficiency and will be  progressive if alcohol intake and nutrition pattern are not modified.  Other neurological problems are likely to be present in combination with this type of Amnesia. Korsakoff's syndrome is also known to be connected with[[confabulation]].


==References==
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Psychiatry]]
[[Category:Mature chapter]]
[[Category:Memory disorders]]


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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Zehra Malik, M.B.B.S[2]

Overview

Amnesia can be divided into two broad groups, retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memory prior to the onset of amnesia and anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memory. Other types of amnesia are Psychological including repressive amnesia and dissociative fugue, infantile amnesia, neurological amnesia (Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease), post-traumatic Amnesia, drug-Induced Amnesia, transient global amnesia.Memory can also be divided into two groups depending on the duration, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Classification

Types of Amnesia Main Features
Dissociative Amnesia Temporary, episodic retrograde memory loss without structural brain damage. Cause is psychological in origin. Dissociative Amnesia is also referred to as psychological amnesia. It has variable presentation:
Transient global amnesia Sudden episodic loss of anterograde and partial retrograde memory. Usually last less than twenty four hours.[4]
Post-traumatic Amnesia Amnesia that follows head trauma could be temporary or permanent. The span of memory loss is uncertain it could present with retrograde, anterograde or combined. Extent of injury and duration of loss of consciousness are important prognostic factors in determining the severity of amnesia. [5]
Infantile Amnesia Also known as childhood amnesia. Early childhood memory is lost, usually up to the age of fours year. Influenced by cultural norms and sexual repression.[6]
Drug-Induced Amnesia Benzodiazepine are the most common group of drugs that can cause drug-induced amnesia, especially if used with alcohol. Memory loss could be long term or short term.[7] Amnesia is anterograde from the time the drug was introduced and patient has impairment in forming new memories. It is reversible upon discontinuation of the drug.
Neurological Amnesia Alzheimer's Disease, Pick's Disease, Parkinson's Disease
Amnesia in Korsakoff’s Syndrome Caused by thiamine deficiency due to prolonged alcohol use or severe malnutrition. Anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.[8]
Selective Amnesia Certain memory is lost. Patient may forget about certain relationships, talents, events, or traumatic incidents.
Epileptic Amnesia Observed in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy.[9] Anterograde amnesia with short-term memory loss.
Lacunar amnesia Memory of a particular event is lost. Lacuna mean 'a gap', which refers to leaving 'a gap' in memory.[10]

References

  1. ↑ Bisaz R, Travaglia A, Alberini CM (2014). "The neurobiological bases of memory formation: from physiological conditions to psychopathology". Psychopathology. 47 (6): 347–56. doi:10.1159/000363702. PMC 4246028. PMID 25301080.
  2. ↑ Bourget D, Whitehurst L (2007). "Amnesia and crime". J Am Acad Psychiatry Law. 35 (4): 469–80. PMID 18086739.
  3. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5
  4. ↑ Profice P, Rizzello V, Pennestrì F, Pilato F, Della Marca G, Sestito A; et al. (2008). "Transient global amnesia during transoesophageal echocardiogram". Neurol Sci. 29 (6): 477–9. doi:10.1007/s10072-008-1034-y. PMID 19031042.
  5. ↑ Leclerc S, Lassonde M, Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Johnston KM (2001). "Recommendations for grading of concussion in athletes". Sports Med. 31 (8): 629–36. doi:10.2165/00007256-200131080-00007. PMID 11475324.
  6. ↑ Wang Q (2003). "Infantile amnesia reconsidered: a cross-cultural analysis". Memory. 11 (1): 65–80. doi:10.1080/741938173. PMID 12653489.
  7. ↑ Sadock, Benjamin J., and Virginia A. Sadock. Kaplan & Sadock's concise textbook of clinical psychiatry. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008. Print
  8. ↑ Kolb, Bryan, and Ian Q. Whishaw. Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers, 2003. Print.
  9. ↑ Kopelman MD (2002). "Disorders of memory". Brain. 125 (Pt 10): 2152–90. doi:10.1093/brain/awf229. PMID 12244076.
  10. ↑ Benezech M, Leyssenne JP (1978). "[Lacunar amnesia and criminal behaviour : realities and medico-legal consequences]". Ann Med Psychol (Paris). 136 (6–8): 918–29. PMID 747264.

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