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==Overview==
It is understood that the main cause of cavernous sinus thrombosis is [[bacterial infection]]<nowiki/>s. Septic cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis are usually caused by central facial infections, especially within the [[danger triangle of the face]] (from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose). Common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis may include: [[Staphylococcus aureus]] (two-thirds of cases) and [[Streptococcus|Streptococcus species]] (approximately 20% of cases). Less common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis include: [[Pneumococcus]], [[Staphylococcus lugdunensis]] [[endocarditis]], [[Gram-negative|gram-negative species]] such as [[Proteus]], [[Haemophilus|hemophilus]], [[Pseudomonas]], [[Fusobacterium]], [[Bacteroides]], [[Gram-positive bacteria|gram-positive species]], [[Fungal infection]]<nowiki/>s, [[Head injury|severe head injuries,]] autoimmune conditions such as [[lupus]] and [[Pregnancy]]. The main sources of infection in cavernous sinus thrombosis include: [[Mastoiditis]], [[Otitis media]], [[Abscess]][[Cellulitis|, cellulitis]], [[Sinusitis]], dental infections or procedures and [[endocarditis]].


== References ==
==Causes==
It is understood that the main cause of cavernous sinus thrombosis is [[bacterial infection]]<nowiki/>s.<ref name="pmid25621244">{{cite journal| author=Varshney S, Malhotra M, Gupta P, Gairola P, Kaur N| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis of nasal origin in children. | journal=Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2015 | volume= 67 | issue= 1 | pages= 100-5 | pmid=25621244 | doi=10.1007/s12070-014-0805-4 | pmc=4298578 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25621244  }}</ref><ref name="pmid7161604">{{cite journal| author=Clifford-Jones RE, Ellis CJ, Stevens JM, Turner A| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis. | journal=J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry | year= 1982 | volume= 45 | issue= 12 | pages= 1092-7 | pmid=7161604 | doi= | pmc=491689 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7161604  }}</ref>
 
===Common Causes===
Septic cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis are usually caused by central facial infections, especially within the [[danger triangle of the face]] (from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose).<ref name="pmid25621244" /><ref name="pmid7161604" />
 
Common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis may include:<ref name="pmid25621244" /><ref name="pmid7161604" />
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]] may account for two-thirds of cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis.
*[[Streptococcus|Streptococcus species]] (approximately 20% of cases)
===Less Common Causes===
Less common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis include:<ref name="pmid25621244" /><ref name="pmid7161604" /><ref name="pmid23120086">{{cite journal| author=Munjal M, Khurana AS| title=Fungal infections and cavernous sinus thrombosis. | journal=Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg | year= 2004 | volume= 56 | issue= 3 | pages= 235-7 | pmid=23120086 | doi=10.1007/BF02974362 | pmc=3451890 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23120086  }}</ref><ref name="pmid26957825">{{cite journal| author=Ghuman MS, Salunke P, Sahoo SK, Kaur S| title=Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in closed head trauma: A call to look beyond fractures and hematomas! | journal=J Emerg Trauma Shock | year= 2016 | volume= 9 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-8 | pmid=26957825 | doi=10.4103/0974-2700.173865 | pmc=4766763 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26957825  }}</ref><ref name="pmid28065614">{{cite journal| author=Singh RK, Bhoi SK, Kalita J, Misra UK| title=Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis Presenting Feature of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. | journal=J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis | year= 2017 | volume= 26 | issue= 3 | pages= 518-522 | pmid=28065614 | doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.12.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28065614  }}</ref><ref name="pmid27146007">{{cite journal| author=López F, Santamarta E, Martínez P, Sáiz-Ayala A, Llorente JL| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis during pregnancy. | journal=Auris Nasus Larynx | year= 2017 | volume= 44 | issue= 2 | pages= 232-236 | pmid=27146007 | doi=10.1016/j.anl.2016.04.006 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27146007  }}</ref><ref name="pmid27790500">{{cite journal| author=Nagarakanti S, Bishburg E, Brown M| title=Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis due to Streptococcus mitis and Staphylococcus lugdunensis. | journal=J Clin Diagn Res | year= 2016 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages= OD13-OD14 | pmid=27790500 | doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/21521.8545 | pmc=5072000 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27790500  }} </ref>
*[[Pneumococcus]]
*[[Staphylococcus lugdunensis]] [[endocarditis]]
*[[Gram-negative|Gram-negative species]] such as [[Proteus]]
*[[Haemophilus|Hemophilus]]
*[[Pseudomonas]]
*[[Fusobacterium]]
*[[Bacteroides]]
*[[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive species]] such as [[Corynebacterium]] and [[Actinomyces]]
*[[Fungal infection]]<nowiki/>s
*[[Head injury|Severe head injuries]]
*Autoimmune conditions such as [[lupus]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
 
=== Sources of infection ===
The main sources of infection in cavernous sinus thrombosis include:
*[[Mastoiditis]]<ref name="pmid7119951">{{cite journal| author=Venezio FR, Naidich TP, Shulman ST| title=Complications of mastoiditis with special emphasis on venous sinus thrombosis. | journal=J Pediatr | year= 1982 | volume= 101 | issue= 4 | pages= 509-13 | pmid=7119951 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7119951  }}</ref>
*[[Otitis media]]<ref name="pmid18552016">{{cite journal| author=Kuczkowski J| title=[Thrombophlebitis of venous sinuses in otitis media]. | journal=Otolaryngol Pol | year= 2007 | volume= 61 | issue= 5 | pages= 769-73 | pmid=18552016 | doi=10.1016/S0030-6657(07)70523-1 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18552016  }}</ref>
*[[Abscess]]<ref name="pmid24665189">{{cite journal| author=Verma R, Junewar V, Singh RK, Ram H, Pal US| title=Bilateral cavernous sinus thrombosis and facial palsy as complications of dental abscess. | journal=Natl J Maxillofac Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 4 | issue= 2 | pages= 252-5 | pmid=24665189 | doi=10.4103/0975-5950.127664 | pmc=3961908 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24665189  }}</ref>
*[[Cellulitis]]<ref name="pmid28629401">{{cite journal| author=Allegrini D, Reposi S, Nocerino E, Pece A| title=Odontogenic orbital cellulitis associated with cavernous sinus thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a case report. | journal=J Med Case Rep | year= 2017 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 164 | pmid=28629401 | doi=10.1186/s13256-017-1309-0 | pmc=5477346 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28629401  }}</ref>
*[[Sinusitis]]<ref name="pmid23497466">{{cite journal| author=Komatsu H, Matsumoto F, Kasai M, Kurano K, Sasaki D, Ikeda K| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis caused by contralateral sphenoid sinusitis: a case report. | journal=Head Face Med | year= 2013 | volume= 9 | issue=  | pages= 9 | pmid=23497466 | doi=10.1186/1746-160X-9-9 | pmc=3605125 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23497466  }}</ref>
*Dental infections or procedures (even a posterior [[Alveolar|superior alveolar nerve]] block entering the [[pterygoid plexus]])<ref name="pmid25247150">{{cite journal| author=Yeo GS, Kim HY, Kim H, Kwak EJ, Jung YS, Park HS et al.| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis caused by a dental infection: a case report. | journal=J Korean Assoc Oral Maxillofac Surg | year= 2014 | volume= 40 | issue= 4 | pages= 195-8 | pmid=25247150 | doi=10.5125/jkaoms.2014.40.4.195 | pmc=4170663 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25247150  }}</ref>
*[[endocarditis]]<ref name="pmid27790500">{{cite journal| author=Nagarakanti S, Bishburg E, Brown M| title=Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis due to Streptococcus mitis and Staphylococcus lugdunensis. | journal=J Clin Diagn Res | year= 2016 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages= OD13-OD14 | pmid=27790500 | doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/21521.8545 | pmc=5072000 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27790500  }} </ref>
 
===Causes by Organ System===
 
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" |'''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | [[Staphylococcus lugdunensis]] [[endocarditis]]<ref name="pmid27790500">{{cite journal| author=Nagarakanti S, Bishburg E, Brown M| title=Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis due to Streptococcus mitis and Staphylococcus lugdunensis. | journal=J Clin Diagn Res | year= 2016 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages= OD13-OD14 | pmid=27790500 | doi=10.7860/JCDR/2016/21521.8545 | pmc=5072000 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27790500  }} </ref>
|-
| bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* Dental [[Abscess]]<ref name="pmid24665189" />
* Dental infections or procedures (even a posterior [[Alveolar|superior alveolar nerve]] block entering the [[pterygoid plexus]])<ref name="pmid25247150" />
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
*[[Mastoiditis]]<ref name="pmid7119951" />
*[[Otitis media]]<ref name="pmid18552016" />
*[[Abscess]]<ref name="pmid24665189" />
*[[Cellulitis]]<ref name="pmid28629401" />
*[[Sinusitis]]<ref name="pmid23497466" />
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |
*[[Staphylococcus aureus]] may account for two-thirds of cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis.
*[[Streptococcus|Streptococcus species]] (approximately 20% of cases)
*[[Pneumococcus]]
*[[Gram-negative|Gram-negative species]] such as [[Proteus]]
*[[Haemophilus|Hemophilus]]
*[[Pseudomonas]]
*[[Fusobacterium]]
*[[Bacteroides]]
*[[Gram-positive bacteria|Gram-positive species]] such as [[Corynebacterium]] and [[Actinomyces]]
*[[Fungal infection]]<nowiki/>s
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Pregnancy]]<ref name="pmid271460072">{{cite journal| author=López F, Santamarta E, Martínez P, Sáiz-Ayala A, Llorente JL| title=Cavernous sinus thrombosis during pregnancy. | journal=Auris Nasus Larynx | year= 2017 | volume= 44 | issue= 2 | pages= 232-236 | pmid=27146007 | doi=10.1016/j.anl.2016.04.006 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27146007  }}</ref>
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | Autoimmune conditions such as [[lupus]]<ref name="pmid280656142">{{cite journal| author=Singh RK, Bhoi SK, Kalita J, Misra UK| title=Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis Presenting Feature of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. | journal=J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis | year= 2017 | volume= 26 | issue= 3 | pages= 518-522 | pmid=28065614 | doi=10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.12.001 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28065614  }}</ref>
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| bgcolor="Beige" |[[Head injury|Severe head injuries]]<ref name="pmid269578252">{{cite journal| author=Ghuman MS, Salunke P, Sahoo SK, Kaur S| title=Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in closed head trauma: A call to look beyond fractures and hematomas! | journal=J Emerg Trauma Shock | year= 2016 | volume= 9 | issue= 1 | pages= 37-8 | pmid=26957825 | doi=10.4103/0974-2700.173865 | pmc=4766763 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26957825  }}</ref>
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|}
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}


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Latest revision as of 16:32, 25 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohamadmostafa Jahansouz M.D.[2]

Overview

It is understood that the main cause of cavernous sinus thrombosis is bacterial infections. Septic cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis are usually caused by central facial infections, especially within the danger triangle of the face (from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose). Common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis may include: Staphylococcus aureus (two-thirds of cases) and Streptococcus species (approximately 20% of cases). Less common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis include: Pneumococcus, Staphylococcus lugdunensis endocarditis, gram-negative species such as Proteus, hemophilus, Pseudomonas, Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, gram-positive species, Fungal infections, severe head injuries, autoimmune conditions such as lupus and Pregnancy. The main sources of infection in cavernous sinus thrombosis include: Mastoiditis, Otitis media, Abscess, cellulitis, Sinusitis, dental infections or procedures and endocarditis.

Causes

It is understood that the main cause of cavernous sinus thrombosis is bacterial infections.[1][2]

Common Causes

Septic cases of cavernous sinus thrombosis are usually caused by central facial infections, especially within the danger triangle of the face (from the corners of the mouth to the bridge of the nose).[1][2]

Common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis may include:[1][2]

Less Common Causes

Less common causes of cavernous sinus thrombosis include:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]

Sources of infection

The main sources of infection in cavernous sinus thrombosis include:

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Staphylococcus lugdunensis endocarditis[7]
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying causes
Dental
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect No underlying causes
Ear Nose Throat
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic No underlying causes
Genetic No underlying causes
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic No underlying causes
Infectious Disease
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic No underlying causes
Neurologic No underlying causes
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic Pregnancy[14]
Oncologic No underlying causes
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Autoimmune conditions such as lupus[15]
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Severe head injuries[16]
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous No underlying causes

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Varshney S, Malhotra M, Gupta P, Gairola P, Kaur N (2015). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis of nasal origin in children". Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 67 (1): 100–5. doi:10.1007/s12070-014-0805-4. PMC 4298578. PMID 25621244.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Clifford-Jones RE, Ellis CJ, Stevens JM, Turner A (1982). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis". J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 45 (12): 1092–7. PMC 491689. PMID 7161604.
  3. ↑ Munjal M, Khurana AS (2004). "Fungal infections and cavernous sinus thrombosis". Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 56 (3): 235–7. doi:10.1007/BF02974362. PMC 3451890. PMID 23120086.
  4. ↑ Ghuman MS, Salunke P, Sahoo SK, Kaur S (2016). "Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in closed head trauma: A call to look beyond fractures and hematomas!". J Emerg Trauma Shock. 9 (1): 37–8. doi:10.4103/0974-2700.173865. PMC 4766763. PMID 26957825.
  5. ↑ Singh RK, Bhoi SK, Kalita J, Misra UK (2017). "Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis Presenting Feature of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 26 (3): 518–522. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.12.001. PMID 28065614.
  6. ↑ López F, Santamarta E, Martínez P, Sáiz-Ayala A, Llorente JL (2017). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis during pregnancy". Auris Nasus Larynx. 44 (2): 232–236. doi:10.1016/j.anl.2016.04.006. PMID 27146007.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Nagarakanti S, Bishburg E, Brown M (2016). "Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis due to Streptococcus mitis and Staphylococcus lugdunensis". J Clin Diagn Res. 10 (9): OD13–OD14. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2016/21521.8545. PMC 5072000. PMID 27790500.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Venezio FR, Naidich TP, Shulman ST (1982). "Complications of mastoiditis with special emphasis on venous sinus thrombosis". J Pediatr. 101 (4): 509–13. PMID 7119951.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Kuczkowski J (2007). "[Thrombophlebitis of venous sinuses in otitis media]". Otolaryngol Pol. 61 (5): 769–73. doi:10.1016/S0030-6657(07)70523-1. PMID 18552016.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Verma R, Junewar V, Singh RK, Ram H, Pal US (2013). "Bilateral cavernous sinus thrombosis and facial palsy as complications of dental abscess". Natl J Maxillofac Surg. 4 (2): 252–5. doi:10.4103/0975-5950.127664. PMC 3961908. PMID 24665189.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Allegrini D, Reposi S, Nocerino E, Pece A (2017). "Odontogenic orbital cellulitis associated with cavernous sinus thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a case report". J Med Case Rep. 11 (1): 164. doi:10.1186/s13256-017-1309-0. PMC 5477346. PMID 28629401.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Komatsu H, Matsumoto F, Kasai M, Kurano K, Sasaki D, Ikeda K (2013). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis caused by contralateral sphenoid sinusitis: a case report". Head Face Med. 9: 9. doi:10.1186/1746-160X-9-9. PMC 3605125. PMID 23497466.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Yeo GS, Kim HY, Kim H, Kwak EJ, Jung YS, Park HS; et al. (2014). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis caused by a dental infection: a case report". J Korean Assoc Oral Maxillofac Surg. 40 (4): 195–8. doi:10.5125/jkaoms.2014.40.4.195. PMC 4170663. PMID 25247150.
  14. ↑ López F, Santamarta E, Martínez P, Sáiz-Ayala A, Llorente JL (2017). "Cavernous sinus thrombosis during pregnancy". Auris Nasus Larynx. 44 (2): 232–236. doi:10.1016/j.anl.2016.04.006. PMID 27146007.
  15. ↑ Singh RK, Bhoi SK, Kalita J, Misra UK (2017). "Cerebral Venous Sinus Thrombosis Presenting Feature of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 26 (3): 518–522. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2016.12.001. PMID 28065614.
  16. ↑ Ghuman MS, Salunke P, Sahoo SK, Kaur S (2016). "Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in closed head trauma: A call to look beyond fractures and hematomas!". J Emerg Trauma Shock. 9 (1): 37–8. doi:10.4103/0974-2700.173865. PMC 4766763. PMID 26957825.

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