Cervicitis epidemiology and demographics: Difference between revisions
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{{Cervicitis}} | {{Cervicitis}} | ||
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==Overview== | |||
The [[incidence]] and [[prevalence]] of cervicitis depends on the study population. The [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is estimated to be 18,000 per 100,000 women diagnosed with [[gonococcal]] infection.<ref name="pmid76760">{{cite journal| author=Barlow D, Phillips I| title=Gonorrhoea in women. Diagnostic, clinical, and laboratory aspects. | journal=Lancet | year= 1978 | volume= 1 | issue= 8067 | pages= 761-4 | pmid=76760 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=76760 }} </ref> Cervicitis is relatively more prevalent in [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV-positive]] women than non-HIV positive women.<ref name="pmid22706215">{{cite journal| author=Lewis DA, Chirwa TF, Msimang VM, Radebe FM, Kamb ML, Firnhaber CS| title=Urethritis/cervicitis pathogen prevalence and associated risk factors among asymptomatic HIV-infected patients in South Africa. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 39 | issue= 7 | pages= 531-6 | pmid=22706215 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824cbecc | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22706215 }} </ref> Among this population, the [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is estimated to be 7,400 per 100,000 women diagnosed with [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV infection]].<ref name="pmid26783349">{{cite journal| author=Dehon PM, Hagensee ME, Sutton KJ, Oddo HE, Nelson N, McGowin CL| title=Histological Evidence of Chronic Mycoplasma genitalium-Induced Cervicitis in HIV-Infected Women: A Retrospective Cohort Study. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 213 | issue= 11 | pages= 1828-35 | pmid=26783349 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiw025 | pmc=4857473 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26783349 }} </ref> The overall [[prevalence]] of nongonococcal cervicitis is higher than gonococcal cervicitis.<ref name="pmid19704398">{{cite journal| author=Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, Hardick J, Quinn TC| title=Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2009 | volume= 36 | issue= 10 | pages= 598-606 | pmid=19704398 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181b01948 | pmc=2924808 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19704398 }} </ref> Chlamydia cervicitis is four to five times more prevalent than gonococcal cervicitis.<ref name="pmid22030186">{{cite journal| author=Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD| title=Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2012 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 1114-7 | pmid=22030186 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2011.07.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22030186 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19704398">{{cite journal| author=Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, Hardick J, Quinn TC| title=Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2009 | volume= 36 | issue= 10 | pages= 598-606 | pmid=19704398 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181b01948 | pmc=2924808 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19704398 }} </ref> However, co-infection of gonococcal and chlamydia cervicitis is higher in [[Pelvic inflammatory disease|PID]] than in cervicitis.<ref name="pmid22030186">{{cite journal| author=Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD| title=Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2012 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 1114-7 | pmid=22030186 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2011.07.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22030186 }} </ref> Cervicitis commonly follows the pattern of age prevalence of [[sexually transmitted infections]] with the highest [[incidence]] among women aged 15-24.<ref name="pmid23403598">{{cite journal| author=Satterwhite CL, Torrone E, Meites E, Dunne EF, Mahajan R, Ocfemia MC et al.| title=Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 40 | issue= 3 | pages= 187-93 | pmid=23403598 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318286bb53 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23403598 }} </ref><ref name="abc">Chlamydia CDC Fact Sheet. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia-detailed.htm#_ENREF_3. Accessed on December 29, 2015</ref><ref name="pmid12220782">{{cite journal| author=Marrazzo JM, Handsfield HH, Whittington WL| title=Predicting chlamydial and gonococcal cervical infection: implications for management of cervicitis. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2002 | volume= 100 | issue= 3 | pages= 579-84 | pmid=12220782 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12220782 }} </ref> There is no racial predilection to developing cervicitis. The [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is higher in under-served communities and developing countries.<ref name="pmid22665107">{{cite journal| author=Chico RM, Mayaud P, Ariti C, Mabey D, Ronsmans C, Chandramohan D| title=Prevalence of malaria and sexually transmitted and reproductive tract infections in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. | journal=JAMA | year= 2012 | volume= 307 | issue= 19 | pages= 2079-86 | pmid=22665107 | doi=10.1001/jama.2012.3428 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22665107 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8106727">{{cite journal| author=Toomey KE, Moran JS, Rafferty MP, Beckett GA| title=Epidemiological considerations of sexually transmitted diseases in underserved populations. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 1993 | volume= 7 | issue= 4 | pages= 739-52 | pmid=8106727 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8106727 }} </ref> | |||
==Epidemiology and Demographics== | |||
===Prevalence and Incidence=== | |||
The [[incidence]] and [[prevalence]] of cervicitis depends on the study population. | |||
The [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is estimated to be 18,000 per 100,000 women diagnosed with [[gonococcal]] infection.<ref name="pmid76760">{{cite journal| author=Barlow D, Phillips I| title=Gonorrhoea in women. Diagnostic, clinical, and laboratory aspects. | journal=Lancet | year= 1978 | volume= 1 | issue= 8067 | pages= 761-4 | pmid=76760 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=76760 }} </ref> The [[prevalence]] of cervicitis ranges from 7,600 to 24,900 per 100,000 female sex workers. The broad range is due to variation in demographic location.<ref name="pmid26633925">{{cite journal| author=Efosa OB, Uwadiegwu AP| title=Cytopathological Examination and Epidemiological Study of Cervicitis in Commercial Sex Workers (CSWs) in Coal City (Enugu), Nigeria. | journal=Ethiop J Health Sci | year= 2015 | volume= 25 | issue= 3 | pages= 225-30 | pmid=26633925 | doi= | pmc=4650877 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26633925 }} </ref><ref name="pmid23631602">{{cite journal| author=Pollett S, Calderon M, Heitzinger K, Solari V, Montano SM, Zunt J| title=Prevalence and predictors of cervicitis in female sex workers in Peru: an observational study. | journal=BMC Infect Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 13 | issue= | pages= 195 | pmid=23631602 | doi=10.1186/1471-2334-13-195 | pmc=3664214 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23631602 }} </ref> | |||
Cervicitis is relatively more prevalent in [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV-positive]] women than non-HIV positive women.<ref name="pmid22706215">{{cite journal| author=Lewis DA, Chirwa TF, Msimang VM, Radebe FM, Kamb ML, Firnhaber CS| title=Urethritis/cervicitis pathogen prevalence and associated risk factors among asymptomatic HIV-infected patients in South Africa. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2012 | volume= 39 | issue= 7 | pages= 531-6 | pmid=22706215 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824cbecc | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22706215 }} </ref> Among this population, the [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is estimated to be 7,400 per 100,000 women diagnosed with [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)|HIV infection]].<ref name="pmid26783349">{{cite journal| author=Dehon PM, Hagensee ME, Sutton KJ, Oddo HE, Nelson N, McGowin CL| title=Histological Evidence of Chronic Mycoplasma genitalium-Induced Cervicitis in HIV-Infected Women: A Retrospective Cohort Study. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 213 | issue= 11 | pages= 1828-35 | pmid=26783349 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiw025 | pmc=4857473 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26783349 }} </ref> Screening and treatment of [[M. genitalium|''M. genitalium'']] among [[HIV]]-infected individuals may be needed to improve cervical health and reduce morbidity.<ref name="pmid26783349">{{cite journal| author=Dehon PM, Hagensee ME, Sutton KJ, Oddo HE, Nelson N, McGowin CL| title=Histological Evidence of Chronic Mycoplasma genitalium-Induced Cervicitis in HIV-Infected Women: A Retrospective Cohort Study. | journal=J Infect Dis | year= 2016 | volume= 213 | issue= 11 | pages= 1828-35 | pmid=26783349 | doi=10.1093/infdis/jiw025 | pmc=4857473 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26783349 }} </ref> The overall [[prevalence]] of nongonococcal cervicitis is higher than gonococcal cervicitis.<ref name="pmid19704398">{{cite journal| author=Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, Hardick J, Quinn TC| title=Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2009 | volume= 36 | issue= 10 | pages= 598-606 | pmid=19704398 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181b01948 | pmc=2924808 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19704398 }} </ref> Chlamydia cervicitis is four to five times more prevalent than gonococcal cervicitis.<ref name="pmid22030186">{{cite journal| author=Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD| title=Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2012 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 1114-7 | pmid=22030186 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2011.07.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22030186 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19704398">{{cite journal| author=Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, Hardick J, Quinn TC| title=Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2009 | volume= 36 | issue= 10 | pages= 598-606 | pmid=19704398 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181b01948 | pmc=2924808 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19704398 }} </ref> However, co-infection of gonococcal and chlamydia cervicitis is higher in [[Pelvic inflammatory disease|PID]] than in cervicitis.<ref name="pmid22030186">{{cite journal| author=Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD| title=Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2012 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 1114-7 | pmid=22030186 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2011.07.014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22030186 }} </ref> | |||
===Age=== | |||
Cervicitis commonly follows the pattern of age prevalence of [[sexually transmitted infections]] with the highest [[incidence]] among women aged 15-24.<ref name="pmid23403598">{{cite journal| author=Satterwhite CL, Torrone E, Meites E, Dunne EF, Mahajan R, Ocfemia MC et al.| title=Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008. | journal=Sex Transm Dis | year= 2013 | volume= 40 | issue= 3 | pages= 187-93 | pmid=23403598 | doi=10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318286bb53 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23403598 }} </ref><ref name="abc">Chlamydia CDC Fact Sheet. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia-detailed.htm#_ENREF_3. Accessed on December 29, 2015</ref><ref name="pmid12220782">{{cite journal| author=Marrazzo JM, Handsfield HH, Whittington WL| title=Predicting chlamydial and gonococcal cervical infection: implications for management of cervicitis. | journal=Obstet Gynecol | year= 2002 | volume= 100 | issue= 3 | pages= 579-84 | pmid=12220782 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12220782 }} </ref> | |||
===Race=== | |||
There is no racial predilection to developing cervicitis. | |||
===Developed and Developing Countries=== | |||
The [[prevalence]] of cervicitis is higher in under-served communities and developing countries.<ref name="pmid22665107">{{cite journal| author=Chico RM, Mayaud P, Ariti C, Mabey D, Ronsmans C, Chandramohan D| title=Prevalence of malaria and sexually transmitted and reproductive tract infections in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. | journal=JAMA | year= 2012 | volume= 307 | issue= 19 | pages= 2079-86 | pmid=22665107 | doi=10.1001/jama.2012.3428 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22665107 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8106727">{{cite journal| author=Toomey KE, Moran JS, Rafferty MP, Beckett GA| title=Epidemiological considerations of sexually transmitted diseases in underserved populations. | journal=Infect Dis Clin North Am | year= 1993 | volume= 7 | issue= 4 | pages= 739-52 | pmid=8106727 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8106727 }} </ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Prince Tano Djan, BSc, MBChB [2]
Overview
The incidence and prevalence of cervicitis depends on the study population. The prevalence of cervicitis is estimated to be 18,000 per 100,000 women diagnosed with gonococcal infection.[1] Cervicitis is relatively more prevalent in HIV-positive women than non-HIV positive women.[2] Among this population, the prevalence of cervicitis is estimated to be 7,400 per 100,000 women diagnosed with HIV infection.[3] The overall prevalence of nongonococcal cervicitis is higher than gonococcal cervicitis.[4] Chlamydia cervicitis is four to five times more prevalent than gonococcal cervicitis.[5][4] However, co-infection of gonococcal and chlamydia cervicitis is higher in PID than in cervicitis.[5] Cervicitis commonly follows the pattern of age prevalence of sexually transmitted infections with the highest incidence among women aged 15-24.[6][7][8] There is no racial predilection to developing cervicitis. The prevalence of cervicitis is higher in under-served communities and developing countries.[9][10]
Epidemiology and Demographics
Prevalence and Incidence
The incidence and prevalence of cervicitis depends on the study population.
The prevalence of cervicitis is estimated to be 18,000 per 100,000 women diagnosed with gonococcal infection.[1] The prevalence of cervicitis ranges from 7,600 to 24,900 per 100,000 female sex workers. The broad range is due to variation in demographic location.[11][12]
Cervicitis is relatively more prevalent in HIV-positive women than non-HIV positive women.[2] Among this population, the prevalence of cervicitis is estimated to be 7,400 per 100,000 women diagnosed with HIV infection.[3] Screening and treatment of M. genitalium among HIV-infected individuals may be needed to improve cervical health and reduce morbidity.[3] The overall prevalence of nongonococcal cervicitis is higher than gonococcal cervicitis.[4] Chlamydia cervicitis is four to five times more prevalent than gonococcal cervicitis.[5][4] However, co-infection of gonococcal and chlamydia cervicitis is higher in PID than in cervicitis.[5]
Age
Cervicitis commonly follows the pattern of age prevalence of sexually transmitted infections with the highest incidence among women aged 15-24.[6][7][8]
Race
There is no racial predilection to developing cervicitis.
Developed and Developing Countries
The prevalence of cervicitis is higher in under-served communities and developing countries.[9][10]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Barlow D, Phillips I (1978). "Gonorrhoea in women. Diagnostic, clinical, and laboratory aspects". Lancet. 1 (8067): 761–4. PMID 76760.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lewis DA, Chirwa TF, Msimang VM, Radebe FM, Kamb ML, Firnhaber CS (2012). "Urethritis/cervicitis pathogen prevalence and associated risk factors among asymptomatic HIV-infected patients in South Africa". Sex Transm Dis. 39 (7): 531–6. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e31824cbecc. PMID 22706215.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Dehon PM, Hagensee ME, Sutton KJ, Oddo HE, Nelson N, McGowin CL (2016). "Histological Evidence of Chronic Mycoplasma genitalium-Induced Cervicitis in HIV-Infected Women: A Retrospective Cohort Study". J Infect Dis. 213 (11): 1828–35. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiw025. PMC 4857473. PMID 26783349.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Gaydos C, Maldeis NE, Hardick A, Hardick J, Quinn TC (2009). "Mycoplasma genitalium as a contributor to the multiple etiologies of cervicitis in women attending sexually transmitted disease clinics". Sex Transm Dis. 36 (10): 598–606. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3181b01948. PMC 2924808. PMID 19704398.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Burnett AM, Anderson CP, Zwank MD (2012). "Laboratory-confirmed gonorrhea and/or chlamydia rates in clinically diagnosed pelvic inflammatory disease and cervicitis". Am J Emerg Med. 30 (7): 1114–7. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2011.07.014. PMID 22030186.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Satterwhite CL, Torrone E, Meites E, Dunne EF, Mahajan R, Ocfemia MC; et al. (2013). "Sexually transmitted infections among US women and men: prevalence and incidence estimates, 2008". Sex Transm Dis. 40 (3): 187–93. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318286bb53. PMID 23403598.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Chlamydia CDC Fact Sheet. CDC.http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia-detailed.htm#_ENREF_3. Accessed on December 29, 2015
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Marrazzo JM, Handsfield HH, Whittington WL (2002). "Predicting chlamydial and gonococcal cervical infection: implications for management of cervicitis". Obstet Gynecol. 100 (3): 579–84. PMID 12220782.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Chico RM, Mayaud P, Ariti C, Mabey D, Ronsmans C, Chandramohan D (2012). "Prevalence of malaria and sexually transmitted and reproductive tract infections in pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review". JAMA. 307 (19): 2079–86. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.3428. PMID 22665107.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Toomey KE, Moran JS, Rafferty MP, Beckett GA (1993). "Epidemiological considerations of sexually transmitted diseases in underserved populations". Infect Dis Clin North Am. 7 (4): 739–52. PMID 8106727.
- ↑ Efosa OB, Uwadiegwu AP (2015). "Cytopathological Examination and Epidemiological Study of Cervicitis in Commercial Sex Workers (CSWs) in Coal City (Enugu), Nigeria". Ethiop J Health Sci. 25 (3): 225–30. PMC 4650877. PMID 26633925.
- ↑ Pollett S, Calderon M, Heitzinger K, Solari V, Montano SM, Zunt J (2013). "Prevalence and predictors of cervicitis in female sex workers in Peru: an observational study". BMC Infect Dis. 13: 195. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-13-195. PMC 3664214. PMID 23631602.