Respiratory acidosis causes: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
(9 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
__NOTOC__ | __NOTOC__ | ||
{{Respiratory acidosis}} | {{Respiratory acidosis}} | ||
{{CMG}} | {{CMG}} {{AE}}{{VKG}} | ||
==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Common causes of [[respiratory acidosis]] include [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]] ([[COPD]]), [[Neuromuscular]] diseases, [[Chest wall]] disorders, [[obesity]]-[[hypoventilation]] [[syndrome]], [[Obstructive sleep apnea]] (OSA), the [[Central nervous system]] (CNS) depression, [[lung]] and airway diseases etc. | |||
== Causes == | == Causes == | ||
=== | ===Common Causes=== | ||
Respiratory acidosis may be caused by: | |||
* Patients suffering from [[COPD]] conditions like [[Emphysema]], [[chronic bronchitis]], [[asthma]].<ref name="pmid11262556">{{cite journal |vauthors=Epstein SK, Singh N |title=Respiratory acidosis |journal=Respir Care |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=366–83 |year=2001 |pmid=11262556 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid15334044">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fanfulla F, Cascone L, Taurino AE |title=Sleep disordered breathing in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease |journal=Minerva Med. |volume=95 |issue=4 |pages=307–21 |year=2004 |pmid=15334044 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3303884">{{cite journal |vauthors=Checkoway H, Dement JM, Fowler DP, Harris RL, Lamm SH, Smith TJ |title=Industrial hygiene involvement in occupational epidemiology |journal=Am Ind Hyg Assoc J |volume=48 |issue=6 |pages=515–23 |year=1987 |pmid=3303884 |doi=10.1080/15298668791385147 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid22500110">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bruno CM, Valenti M |title=Acid-base disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a pathophysiological review |journal=J. Biomed. Biotechnol. |volume=2012 |issue= |pages=915150 |year=2012 |pmid=22500110 |pmc=3303884 |doi=10.1155/2012/915150 |url=}}</ref> | |||
* | * Chest wall disorders like [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis|amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), [[Paralysis]] and dysfunction of [[diaphragm]], [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]([[Ascending paralysis]]), [[Myasthenia gravis]]([[Acetylcholine receptor]] [[antibodies]]), [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Botulism]]([[food poisoning]] caused by a [[bacterium]]) | ||
* | * [[Obesity]]-[[hypoventilation]] [[syndrome]]: A condition which is seen most commonly in which severely [[overweight]] people who fail to breathe deeply enough, which results in low [[blood]] [[oxygen]] levels and high blood [[carbon dioxide]] ([[CO2|CO<sub>2</sub>]]) levels.<ref name="pmid20488285">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brown LK |title=Hypoventilation syndromes |journal=Clin. Chest Med. |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=249–70 |year=2010 |pmid=20488285 |doi=10.1016/j.ccm.2010.03.002 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19452386">{{cite journal |vauthors=Berger KI, Goldring RM, Rapoport DM |title=Obesity hypoventilation syndrome |journal=Semin Respir Crit Care Med |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=253–61 |year=2009 |pmid=19452386 |doi=10.1055/s-0029-1222439 |url=}}</ref> | ||
** | * [[Obstructive sleep apnea]] (OSA): OSA frequency increases with [[age]] and [[obesity]]. In this condition, breath can become very shallow or one may even stop breathing.<ref name="pmid22032434">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chebbo A, Tfaili A, Jones SF |title=Hypoventilation syndromes |journal=Med. Clin. North Am. |volume=95 |issue=6 |pages=1189–202 |year=2011 |pmid=22032434 |doi=10.1016/j.mcna.2011.09.002 |url=}}</ref> | ||
* [[Central nervous system]] (CNS) depression: | |||
** '''[[Drugs]]''': Drugs like [[Narcotic|narcotics]], [[Barbiturate|barbiturates]], [[Benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]] which depress the central respiratory system. | |||
** '''Neurologic disorders''': like [[trauma]], brainstem disease, and [[encephalitis]]. | |||
** '''[[Primary alveolar hypoventilation]]''': Its a disorder in which it results in respiratory arrest during sleep. | |||
** '''Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome''': It is rare but lifelong and life-threatening disorder. It affects both [[central]] and [[autonomic]] nervous system which controls [[heart rate]], [[blood pressure]], sensing of [[oxygen]] and [[carbon dioxide]] levels in the blood, [[temperature]] etc.Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome is also called as ''Ondine curse.'' | |||
'''Less Common Causes''' | |||
Less common causes of disease name include: | |||
* | * [[Laryngeal]] and [[tracheal stenosis]] | ||
* [[Interstitial]] lung disease | |||
* | |||
===Causes by Organ System=== | ===Causes by Organ System=== | ||
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1" | {| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1" | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Chemical / poisoning''' | | '''Chemical / poisoning''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Agrocide]], [[Agronexit]], [[Aparasin]], [[Aphtiria]], [[Ben-Hex]], [[Benhexol]], [[Benzene hexachloride]], [[Bexol]], [[Chloresene]], [[Cone shell poisoning]], [[HCH-gamma]], [[Hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma)]], [[Lindane]], [[Poison hemlock]], [[Tetrodotoxin]], [[Tick paralysis]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Agrocide]], [[Agronexit]], [[Aparasin]], [[Aphtiria]], [[Ben-Hex]], [[Benhexol]], [[Benzene hexachloride]], [[Bexol]], [[Chloresene]], [[Cone shell poisoning]], [[HCH-gamma]], [[Hexachlorocyclohexane (gamma)]], [[Lindane]], [[Poison hemlock]], [[Tetrodotoxin]], [[Tick paralysis]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Drug Side Effect''' | | '''Drug Side Effect''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acetylcarbromal]], [[Alfentanil]], [[Alprazolam]], [[Amylobarbitone]], [[Barbitone]], [[Bromazepam]], [[Brotizolam]], [[Butabarbital]], [[Butalbital]], [[Butobarbitone]], [[Camazepam]], [[Chlordiazepoxide]], [[Cinolazepam]], [[Clobazam]], [[Clonazepam]], [[Clorazepate]], [[Clotiazepam]], [[Cloxazolam]], [[Cyclobarbital]], [[Demethyldiazepam]], [[Diazepam]], [[Doxefazepam]], [[Drug overdose]], [[Estazolam]], [[Ethyl loflazepate]], [[Etizolam]], [[Etomidate]], [[Fentanyl]], [[Flurazepam]], [[Fluridrazepam]], [[Fospropofol]], [[General anaesthesia]], [[Halazepam]], [[Haloxazolam]], [[Hexobarbital]], [[Ketazolam]], [[Loprazolam]], [[Lorazepam]], [[Lormetazepam]], [[Medazepam]], [[Mephobarbital]], [[Methohexital]], [[Mexazolam]], [[Midazolam]], [[Nitrazepam]], [[Oxazepam]], [[Oxazolam]], [[Pentobarbital]], [[Pethidine]], [[Phenobarbital]], [[Pinazepam]], [[Prazepam]], [[Primidone]], [[Promethazine]], [[Propofol]], [[Quazepam]], [[Remifentanil]], [[Secobarbital]], [[Sufentanil]], [[Tapentadol]], [[Temazepam]], [[Tetrazepam]], [[Thiamylal]], [[Thiopentone]], [[Tofisopam]], [[Triazolam]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acetylcarbromal]], [[Alfentanil]], [[Alprazolam]], [[Amylobarbitone]], [[Barbitone]], [[Bromazepam]], [[Brotizolam]], [[Butabarbital]], [[Butalbital]], [[Butobarbitone]], [[Camazepam]], [[Chlordiazepoxide]], [[Cinolazepam]], [[Clobazam]], [[Clonazepam]], [[Clorazepate]], [[Clotiazepam]], [[Cloxazolam]], [[Cyclobarbital]], [[Demethyldiazepam]], [[Diazepam]], [[Doxefazepam]], [[Drug overdose]], [[Estazolam]], [[Ethyl loflazepate]], [[Etizolam]], [[Etomidate]], [[Fentanyl]], [[Flurazepam]], [[Fluridrazepam]], [[Fospropofol]], [[General anaesthesia]], [[Halazepam]], [[Haloxazolam]], [[Hexobarbital]], [[Ketazolam]], [[Loprazolam]], [[Lorazepam]], [[Lormetazepam]], [[Medazepam]], [[Mephobarbital]], [[Methohexital]], [[Mexazolam]], [[Midazolam]], [[Nitrazepam]], [[Oxazepam]], [[Oxazolam]], [[Pentobarbital]], [[Pethidine]], [[Phenobarbital]], [[Pinazepam]], [[Prazepam]], [[Primidone]], [[Promethazine]], [[Propofol]], [[Quazepam]], [[Remifentanil]], [[Secobarbital]], [[Sufentanil]], [[Tapentadol]], [[Temazepam]], [[Tetrazepam]], [[Thiamylal]], [[Thiopentone]], [[Tofisopam]], [[Triazolam]] | ||
|- | |||
|- | |||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Gastroenterologic''' | | '''Gastroenterologic''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Necrotizing enterocolitis]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Necrotizing enterocolitis]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Genetic''' | | '''Genetic''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Athabaskan brain stem dysgenesis]], [[Edstrom myopathy]], [[Jeune thoracic dystrophy syndrome]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Nemaline myopathy]], [[Perry syndrome]], [[Pitt-Hopkins syndrome]], [[Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy]], [[X-linked myotubular myopathy]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Athabaskan brain stem dysgenesis]], [[Edstrom myopathy]], [[Jeune thoracic dystrophy syndrome]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Nemaline myopathy]], [[Perry syndrome]], [[Pitt-Hopkins syndrome]], [[Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy]], [[X-linked myotubular myopathy]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Infectious Disease''' | | '''Infectious Disease''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Clostridium tetani]], [[Poliomyelitis]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Clostridium tetani]], [[Poliomyelitis]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho''' | | '''Musculoskeletal / Ortho''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Cervical spine injury]], [[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]], [[Congenital fiber-type disproportion myopathy]], [[Diaphragm paralysis]], [[Idiopathic spinal scoliosis]], [[Rib fracture]], [[Severe kyphoscoliosis]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Nemaline myopathy]], [[Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy]], [[X-linked myotubular myopathy]], [[Neuromuscular diseases]], [[Myasthenia gravis]], [[Polymyositis]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Cervical spine injury]], [[Congenital diaphragmatic hernia]], [[Congenital fiber-type disproportion myopathy]], [[Diaphragm paralysis]], [[Idiopathic spinal scoliosis]], [[Rib fracture]], [[Severe kyphoscoliosis]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]], [[Muscular dystrophy]], [[Nemaline myopathy]], [[Ullrich congenital muscular dystrophy]], [[X-linked myotubular myopathy]], [[Neuromuscular diseases]], [[Myasthenia gravis]], [[Polymyositis]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Neurologic''' | | '''Neurologic''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]], [[Brain death]], [[Brown-Vialetto-van Laere syndrome]], [[Central sleep apnea]], [[CNS depression]], [[Congenital failure of autonomic control]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]], [[Motor neuron disease]], [[Neuromuscular diseases]], [[Raised intracranial pressure]], [[Subacute necrotising encephalomyelopathy]], [[X-linked infantile spinal muscular atrophy]], [[Athabaskan brain stem dysgenesis]], [[Diaphragm paralysis]], [[Brain tumor]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]], [[Brain death]], [[Brown-Vialetto-van Laere syndrome]], [[Central sleep apnea]], [[CNS depression]], [[Congenital failure of autonomic control]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]], [[Motor neuron disease]], [[Neuromuscular diseases]], [[Raised intracranial pressure]], [[Subacute necrotising encephalomyelopathy]], [[X-linked infantile spinal muscular atrophy]], [[Athabaskan brain stem dysgenesis]], [[Diaphragm paralysis]], [[Brain tumor]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Nutritional / Metabolic''' | | '''Nutritional / Metabolic''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Subacute necrotising encephalomyelopathy]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Subacute necrotising encephalomyelopathy]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Oncologic''' | | '''Oncologic''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Brain tumor]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Brain tumor]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Overdose / Toxicity''' | | '''Overdose / Toxicity''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Acetylcarbromal]], [[Alfentanil]], [[Alprazolam]], [[Amylobarbitone]], [[Barbitone]], [[Bromazepam]], [[Brotizolam]], [[Butabarbital]], [[Butalbital]], [[Butobarbitone]], [[Camazepam]], [[Chlordiazepoxide]], [[Cinolazepam]], [[Clobazam]], [[Clonazepam]], [[Clorazepate]], [[Clotiazepam]], [[Cloxazolam]], [[Cyclobarbital]], [[Demethyldiazepam]], [[Diazepam]], [[Doxefazepam]], [[Drug overdose]], [[Estazolam]], [[Ethyl loflazepate]], [[Etizolam]], [[Etomidate]], [[Fentanyl]], [[Flurazepam]], [[Fluridrazepam]], [[Fospropofol]], [[General anaesthesia]], [[Halazepam]], [[Haloxazolam]], [[Hexobarbital]], [[Ketazolam]], [[Loprazolam]], [[Lorazepam]], [[Lormetazepam]], [[Medazepam]], [[Mephobarbital]], [[Methohexital]], [[Mexazolam]], [[Midazolam]], [[Nitrazepam]], [[Oxazepam]], [[Oxazolam]], [[Pentobarbital]], [[Pethidine]], [[Phenobarbital]], [[Pinazepam]], [[Prazepam]], [[Primidone]], [[Promethazine]], [[Propofol]], [[Quazepam]], [[Remifentanil]], [[Secobarbital]], [[Sufentanil]], [[Tapentadol]], [[Temazepam]], [[Tetrazepam]], [[Thiamylal]], [[Thiopentone]], [[Tofisopam]], [[Triazolam]], [[Oxygen]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Acetylcarbromal]], [[Alfentanil]], [[Alprazolam]], [[Amylobarbitone]], [[Barbitone]], [[Bromazepam]], [[Brotizolam]], [[Butabarbital]], [[Butalbital]], [[Butobarbitone]], [[Camazepam]], [[Chlordiazepoxide]], [[Cinolazepam]], [[Clobazam]], [[Clonazepam]], [[Clorazepate]], [[Clotiazepam]], [[Cloxazolam]], [[Cyclobarbital]], [[Demethyldiazepam]], [[Diazepam]], [[Doxefazepam]], [[Drug overdose]], [[Estazolam]], [[Ethyl loflazepate]], [[Etizolam]], [[Etomidate]], [[Fentanyl]], [[Flurazepam]], [[Fluridrazepam]], [[Fospropofol]], [[General anaesthesia]], [[Halazepam]], [[Haloxazolam]], [[Hexobarbital]], [[Ketazolam]], [[Loprazolam]], [[Lorazepam]], [[Lormetazepam]], [[Medazepam]], [[Mephobarbital]], [[Methohexital]], [[Mexazolam]], [[Midazolam]], [[Nitrazepam]], [[Oxazepam]], [[Oxazolam]], [[Pentobarbital]], [[Pethidine]], [[Phenobarbital]], [[Pinazepam]], [[Prazepam]], [[Primidone]], [[Promethazine]], [[Propofol]], [[Quazepam]], [[Remifentanil]], [[Secobarbital]], [[Sufentanil]], [[Tapentadol]], [[Temazepam]], [[Tetrazepam]], [[Thiamylal]], [[Thiopentone]], [[Tofisopam]], [[Triazolam]], [[Oxygen]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Pulmonary''' | | '''Pulmonary''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Chronic bronchitis]], [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], [[Emphysema]], [[Foreign body in respiratory tract]], [[Hyaline membrane disease]], [[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]], [[Obstructive sleep apnea]], [[Pickwickian syndrome]], [[Pneumothorax]], [[Pulmonary hypoplasia]], [[Respiratory depression]], [[Respiratory distress syndrome]], [[Severe asthma]], [[Shallow Breathing ]], [[Snoring]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]], [[Tracheal stenosis]], [[Aspiration]], [[Severe pneumonia]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Chronic bronchitis]], [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], [[Emphysema]], [[Foreign body in respiratory tract]], [[Hyaline membrane disease]], [[Obesity hypoventilation syndrome]], [[Obstructive sleep apnea]], [[Pickwickian syndrome]], [[Pneumothorax]], [[Pulmonary hypoplasia]], [[Respiratory depression]], [[Respiratory distress syndrome]], [[Severe asthma]], [[Shallow Breathing ]] , [[Snoring]], [[Stuve-Wiedemann syndrome]], [[Tracheal stenosis]], [[Aspiration]], [[Severe pneumonia]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy''' | | '''Rheum / Immune / Allergy''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Myasthenia gravis]], [[Polymyositis]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Myasthenia gravis]], [[Polymyositis]], [[Guillain-Barre syndrome]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Trauma''' | | '''Trauma''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Flail chest]], [[Cervical spine injury]], [[Pneumothorax]], [[Head injury]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Flail chest]], [[Cervical spine injury]], [[Pneumothorax]], [[Head injury]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | |- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | ||
| '''Miscellaneous''' | | '''Miscellaneous''' | ||
|bgcolor="Beige"| [[Asphyxiation]], [[Reduced level of consciousness]], [[Congenital failure of autonomic control]], [[Shallow Breathing ]] | | bgcolor="Beige" | [[Asphyxiation]], [[Reduced level of consciousness]], [[Congenital failure of autonomic control]], [[Shallow Breathing ]] | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
==References== | ==References== |
Latest revision as of 18:33, 2 March 2018
Respiratory acidosis Microchapters |
Diagnosis |
---|
Treatment |
Case Studies |
Respiratory acidosis causes On the Web |
American Roentgen Ray Society Images of Respiratory acidosis causes |
Risk calculators and risk factors for Respiratory acidosis causes |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vamsikrishna Gunnam M.B.B.S [2]
Overview
Common causes of respiratory acidosis include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), Neuromuscular diseases, Chest wall disorders, obesity-hypoventilation syndrome, Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), the Central nervous system (CNS) depression, lung and airway diseases etc.
Causes
Common Causes
Respiratory acidosis may be caused by:
- Patients suffering from COPD conditions like Emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma.[1][2][3][4]
- Chest wall disorders like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Paralysis and dysfunction of diaphragm, Guillain-Barré syndrome(Ascending paralysis), Myasthenia gravis(Acetylcholine receptor antibodies), Muscular dystrophy, Botulism(food poisoning caused by a bacterium)
- Obesity-hypoventilation syndrome: A condition which is seen most commonly in which severely overweight people who fail to breathe deeply enough, which results in low blood oxygen levels and high blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels.[5][6]
- Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA): OSA frequency increases with age and obesity. In this condition, breath can become very shallow or one may even stop breathing.[7]
- Central nervous system (CNS) depression:
- Drugs: Drugs like narcotics, barbiturates, benzodiazepines which depress the central respiratory system.
- Neurologic disorders: like trauma, brainstem disease, and encephalitis.
- Primary alveolar hypoventilation: Its a disorder in which it results in respiratory arrest during sleep.
- Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome: It is rare but lifelong and life-threatening disorder. It affects both central and autonomic nervous system which controls heart rate, blood pressure, sensing of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood, temperature etc.Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome is also called as Ondine curse.
Less Common Causes
Less common causes of disease name include:
- Laryngeal and tracheal stenosis
- Interstitial lung disease
Causes by Organ System
References
- ↑ Epstein SK, Singh N (2001). "Respiratory acidosis". Respir Care. 46 (4): 366–83. PMID 11262556.
- ↑ Fanfulla F, Cascone L, Taurino AE (2004). "Sleep disordered breathing in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Minerva Med. 95 (4): 307–21. PMID 15334044.
- ↑ Checkoway H, Dement JM, Fowler DP, Harris RL, Lamm SH, Smith TJ (1987). "Industrial hygiene involvement in occupational epidemiology". Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 48 (6): 515–23. doi:10.1080/15298668791385147. PMID 3303884.
- ↑ Bruno CM, Valenti M (2012). "Acid-base disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a pathophysiological review". J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2012: 915150. doi:10.1155/2012/915150. PMC 3303884. PMID 22500110.
- ↑ Brown LK (2010). "Hypoventilation syndromes". Clin. Chest Med. 31 (2): 249–70. doi:10.1016/j.ccm.2010.03.002. PMID 20488285.
- ↑ Berger KI, Goldring RM, Rapoport DM (2009). "Obesity hypoventilation syndrome". Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 30 (3): 253–61. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1222439. PMID 19452386.
- ↑ Chebbo A, Tfaili A, Jones SF (2011). "Hypoventilation syndromes". Med. Clin. North Am. 95 (6): 1189–202. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2011.09.002. PMID 22032434.