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{{Hemothorax}} | {{Hemothorax}} | ||
{{CMG}}; {{AE}} [[User:Irfan Dotani|Irfan Dotani]] {{JE}} | |||
==Overview== | |||
Haemothorax may be caused by trauma or can be spontaneous and iatrogenic. Causes of traumatic haemothorax include [[Blunt force trauma|blunt force injuries]], [[Penetrating trauma|penetrating thoracic injuries]], and thoracoabdominal injuries. Causes of spontaneous haemothorax include vascular disorders, malignancies, connective tissue disorders, [[Gynaecology|gynecological]] disorders, hematological disorders, and miscellaneous pathological entities. Haemothorax can also be a complication of various [[Iatrogenic|iatrogenically]]'''-'''related procedures. In addition, the cause of haemothorax can remain unknown even after exploratory thoracotomy.<ref name="pmid22554372">{{cite journal |vauthors=Çiledağ A, Çelik G, Köycü G, Gürsoy E, Yüksel C |title=[A rare complication of oral anticoagulant treatment: hemothorax] |language=Turkish |journal=Tuberk Toraks |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=70–3 |date=2012 |pmid=22554372 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23415575">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ávila Martínez RJ, Hernández Voth A, Marrón Fernández C, Hermoso Alarza F, Martínez Serna I, Mariscal de Alba A, Zuluaga Bedoya M, Trujillo MD, Meneses Pardo JC, Díaz Hellin V, Larru Cabrero E, Gámez García AP |title=Evolution and complications of chest trauma |journal=Arch. Bronconeumol. |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=177–80 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23415575 |doi=10.1016/j.arbres.2012.12.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24529771">{{cite journal |vauthors=Janik M, Straka L, Krajcovic J, Hejna P, Hamzik J, Novomesky F |title=Non-traumatic and spontaneous hemothorax in the setting of forensic medical examination: a systematic literature survey |journal=Forensic Sci. Int. |volume=236 |issue= |pages=22–9 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24529771 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.12.013 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21740393">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rad MG, Mahmodlou R, Mohammadi A, Mladkova N, Noorozinia F |title=Spontaneous massive hemothorax secondary to chest wall chondrosarcoma: a case report |journal=Tuberk Toraks |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=168–72 |date=2011 |pmid=21740393 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20817498">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boersma WG, Stigt JA, Smit HJ |title=Treatment of haemothorax |journal=Respir Med |volume=104 |issue=11 |pages=1583–7 |date=November 2010 |pmid=20817498 |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2010.08.006 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25922734">{{cite journal |vauthors=Patrini D, Panagiotopoulos N, Pararajasingham J, Gvinianidze L, Iqbal Y, Lawrence DR |title=Etiology and management of spontaneous haemothorax |journal=J Thorac Dis |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=520–6 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25922734 |pmc=4387396 |doi=10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.12.50 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12434904">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kara A, Yarali N, Fisgin T, Duru F |title=Spontaneous haemothorax: an uncommon presentation of Glanzmann thrombasthenia |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1139–40 |date=2002 |pmid=12434904 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8124921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hammoudeh M, Qaddoumi NK |title=Pleural haemorrhage in Henoch Schonlein purpura |journal=Clin. Rheumatol. |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=538–9 |date=December 1993 |pmid=8124921 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23577922">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ogura Y, Watanabe K, Hosogane N, Toyama Y, Matsumoto M |title=Acute respiratory failure due to hemothorax after posterior correction surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a case report |journal=BMC Musculoskelet Disord |volume=14 |issue= |pages=132 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23577922 |pmc=3636110 |doi=10.1186/1471-2474-14-132 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27093476">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cantey EP, Walter JM, Corbridge T, Barsuk JH |title=Complications of thoracentesis: incidence, risk factors, and strategies for prevention |journal=Curr Opin Pulm Med |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=378–85 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27093476 |doi=10.1097/MCP.0000000000000285 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid737589">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dontigny L |title=Management of critical emergencies in chest trauma |journal=Can J Surg |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=516–8 |date=November 1978 |pmid=737589 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21034516">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhao Y, Li GY, Yang Z, Zhang P, Zhang K, Shao G |title=Bilateral heterochronic spontaneous hemothorax caused by pulmonary arteriovenous malformation in a gravid: a case report |journal=J Cardiothorac Surg |volume=5 |issue= |pages=96 |date=October 2010 |pmid=21034516 |pmc=2987927 |doi=10.1186/1749-8090-5-96 |url=}}</ref> | |||
==Causes== | |||
Common causes of hemothorax include.<ref name="pmid22554372">{{cite journal |vauthors=Çiledağ A, Çelik G, Köycü G, Gürsoy E, Yüksel C |title=[A rare complication of oral anticoagulant treatment: hemothorax] |language=Turkish |journal=Tuberk Toraks |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=70–3 |date=2012 |pmid=22554372 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23415575">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ávila Martínez RJ, Hernández Voth A, Marrón Fernández C, Hermoso Alarza F, Martínez Serna I, Mariscal de Alba A, Zuluaga Bedoya M, Trujillo MD, Meneses Pardo JC, Díaz Hellin V, Larru Cabrero E, Gámez García AP |title=Evolution and complications of chest trauma |journal=Arch. Bronconeumol. |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=177–80 |date=May 2013 |pmid=23415575 |doi=10.1016/j.arbres.2012.12.005 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid24529771">{{cite journal |vauthors=Janik M, Straka L, Krajcovic J, Hejna P, Hamzik J, Novomesky F |title=Non-traumatic and spontaneous hemothorax in the setting of forensic medical examination: a systematic literature survey |journal=Forensic Sci. Int. |volume=236 |issue= |pages=22–9 |date=March 2014 |pmid=24529771 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.12.013 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21740393">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rad MG, Mahmodlou R, Mohammadi A, Mladkova N, Noorozinia F |title=Spontaneous massive hemothorax secondary to chest wall chondrosarcoma: a case report |journal=Tuberk Toraks |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=168–72 |date=2011 |pmid=21740393 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20817498">{{cite journal |vauthors=Boersma WG, Stigt JA, Smit HJ |title=Treatment of haemothorax |journal=Respir Med |volume=104 |issue=11 |pages=1583–7 |date=November 2010 |pmid=20817498 |doi=10.1016/j.rmed.2010.08.006 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid25922734">{{cite journal |vauthors=Patrini D, Panagiotopoulos N, Pararajasingham J, Gvinianidze L, Iqbal Y, Lawrence DR |title=Etiology and management of spontaneous haemothorax |journal=J Thorac Dis |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=520–6 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25922734 |pmc=4387396 |doi=10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.12.50 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid12434904">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kara A, Yarali N, Fisgin T, Duru F |title=Spontaneous haemothorax: an uncommon presentation of Glanzmann thrombasthenia |journal=Acta Paediatr. |volume=91 |issue=10 |pages=1139–40 |date=2002 |pmid=12434904 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8124921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hammoudeh M, Qaddoumi NK |title=Pleural haemorrhage in Henoch Schonlein purpura |journal=Clin. Rheumatol. |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=538–9 |date=December 1993 |pmid=8124921 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid23577922">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ogura Y, Watanabe K, Hosogane N, Toyama Y, Matsumoto M |title=Acute respiratory failure due to hemothorax after posterior correction surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a case report |journal=BMC Musculoskelet Disord |volume=14 |issue= |pages=132 |date=April 2013 |pmid=23577922 |pmc=3636110 |doi=10.1186/1471-2474-14-132 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid27093476">{{cite journal |vauthors=Cantey EP, Walter JM, Corbridge T, Barsuk JH |title=Complications of thoracentesis: incidence, risk factors, and strategies for prevention |journal=Curr Opin Pulm Med |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=378–85 |date=July 2016 |pmid=27093476 |doi=10.1097/MCP.0000000000000285 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid737589">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dontigny L |title=Management of critical emergencies in chest trauma |journal=Can J Surg |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=516–8 |date=November 1978 |pmid=737589 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid21034516">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhao Y, Li GY, Yang Z, Zhang P, Zhang K, Shao G |title=Bilateral heterochronic spontaneous hemothorax caused by pulmonary arteriovenous malformation in a gravid: a case report |journal=J Cardiothorac Surg |volume=5 |issue= |pages=96 |date=October 2010 |pmid=21034516 |pmc=2987927 |doi=10.1186/1749-8090-5-96 |url=}}</ref> | |||
=== Traumatic haemothorax === | |||
Chest trauma is of three types: | |||
* [[Blunt force trauma|Blunt force injury]] cases such as those that occur in vehicular collisions and following falls or jumps from heights | |||
* [[Penetrating trauma|Penetrating thoracic injuries]] produced by a stab or [[Ballistic trauma|gunshot wounds]] | |||
* Thoracoabdominal injuries | |||
=== Spontaneous or non-traumatic haemothorax === | |||
Spontaneous haemothorax is a rare clinical condition in the absence of trauma or [[iatrogenic]] causes. Bilateral spontaneous haemothorax is a very rare entity and the main cause of it is primary or metastatic pleural [[angiosarcoma]]. Causes of spontaneous haemothorax include: | |||
* Vascular disorders causing spontaneous hemothroax include [[aortic aneurysm]] rupture, rupture of thoracic [[aortic dissection]] - dissection is due to arterial [[hypertension]] followed by [[atherosclerosis]] -, rupture of a [[Saccular aneurysm|saccular aortic aneurysm]] and traumatic rupture of the [[pericardial]] sac during [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] in individuals with [[hemopericardium]], fatal spontaneous dissection of supra-aortic vessels without any evidence of aortic disease during [[pregnancy]] and early [[puerperium]], [[bronchial artery]] [[aneurysm]] rupture, aneurysmatic internal thoracic artery, intercostal vessels, [[internal thoracic artery]] aneurysm, or pulmonary congenital aberrant vessels, ruptured [[Mycotic aneurysm|mycotic aneurysms]], [[Innominate artery|innominate]] truncal dissection, using neck veins for mainlining and rupture of a [[subclavian artery]] aneurysm, pulmonary [[arteriovenous malformation]]<nowiki/>s (AVMs), fatal and non-fatal AVM-associated massive hemothorax is often linked to [[Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia|Osler–Weber–Rendu disease]], associated with congenital heart disease such as rupture of a [[Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)|patent ductus arteriosus]], [[Eisenmenger's syndrome|Eisenmenger syndrome]], [[aortic coarctation]] and [[bicuspid aortic valve]] disease. | |||
* Malignancies causing spontaneous hemothroax include [[lymphangiosarcoma]] and vascular mediastinal [[schwannoma]], schwanommas of von Recklinghausen disease, [[lymphangioma]], [[Mediastinum|mediastinal]] [[teratoma]], [[Metastasis|metastatic]] [[choriocarcinoma]], metastatic [[Renal cell carcinoma|renal carcinoma]], [[Abrikossoff's tumor|Abrikossoff tumor]], pulmonary [[angiosarcoma]], [[osteochondroma]], Kaposiform endodermal sinus tumour, [[hemangioendothelioma]], hemangioma, [[hemangiopericytoma]] fibrous tumor of the pleura, [[hepatocellular carcinoma]], [[periosteal chondroma]], [[chondroblastoma]] of the rib, [[synovial sarcoma]], [[osteosarcoma]], [[Ewing's sarcoma|Ewing sarcoma]], [[neurofibrosarcoma]], [[thymoma]], mediastinal [[meningioma]], thoracic [[neuroblastoma]], pleural [[mesothelioma]], [[chronic myeloid leukaemia]], neurofibromatosis type I (Morbus von Recklinghause), [[Chondrosarcoma|chondrosarcomas]], [[ectopic]] meningioma and [[Germ cell tumor|germ cells tumors]]. | |||
* Connective tissue disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include Vascular [[Ehlers–Danlos syndrome]] (Ehlers–Danlos type IV, EDS IV), [[Marfan's syndrome|Marfan syndrome]], Loeys–Dietz syndrome, familial [[thoracic aortic aneurysm]] syndrome, Shprintzen–Goldberg syndrome and [[Neurofibromatosis type I|Type I neurofibromatosis]] (NF-1) or [[Neurofibromatosis type I|Von Recklinghausen's disease]] (VRD). | |||
* Pleural disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include spontaneous [[pneumothorax]], spontaneous [[pneumohemothorax]] (the accumulation of >400 mL of blood in the pleural cavity in association with spontaneous pneumothorax) and pleural metastasis. | |||
* [[Exostosis|Coastal exostoses]] or [[osteochondroma]] occurs either sporadically or as a manifestation of a genetic disorder known as [[hereditary multiple exostoses]] (HME). Lesions mainly occur in infants and children and their complications include haemothorax, [[pneumothorax]], diaphragmatic or pericardial lacerations and visceral pleural injury. | |||
* [[Gynaecology|Gynecological]] disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include Intrathoracic implantation of ectopic [[Endometrium|endometrial tissue]] occurs as a result of the migration of endometrial tissue through the [[thoracic diaphragm]]. Spontaneous haemothorax may be a response to cyclical hormonal changes in [[Menstrual cycle|menstruating]] women. | |||
* Hematological disorders causing spontaneous hemothroax include [[hemophilia]], [[Immune-mediated disease|immune-mediated]] platelet destruction due to Many drugs such as [[Sedative|sedatives]], [[tranquilizers]], [[Anticonvulsant|anticonvulsants]], and [[heparin]], [[anticoagulant]]-associated hemothorax, specifically, as a result of thromboembolic disease treatment, hematology-related hemothorax include [[Glanzmann's thrombasthenia]], [[thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura]], and intrathoracic [[extramedullary hematopoiesis]], intrathoracic intramedullary [[hematopoiesis]] due to a secondary process, such as [[Myeloproliferative disease|myeloproliferative disorders]], [[hemolytic anemia]], [[hereditary spherocytosis]], chronic [[asthma]], and [[Gaucher's disease|Gaucher disease]], [[beta thalassemia]], rupture of extramedullary hematopoietic pulmonary nodules, haemothorax has been also reported in the setting of plasminogen activator user for [[venous thrombosis]] in patient with [[pneumonia]]. | |||
* Miscellaneous causing spontaneous hemothroax include [[tuberculosis]], [[necrotizing]] [[Respiratory tract infection|lung infection]], [[uremia]], spontaneous hemothorax secondary to a ruptured [[Hydatid cyst|parasitic hydatid (Echinococcal) cyst]] of pulmonary [[parenchyma]], [[Malaria]] is another rare parasitic etiology for spontaneous hemothorax, [[amyloidosis]]-induced spontaneous mediastinal hemorrhage with hemothorax due to perivascular and vascular wall involvement, systemic diseases like [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)]] and [[Henoch-Schönlein purpura]], [[Pulmonary embolism|pulmonary emboli]], [[ectopic pregnancy]], [[Pulmonary sequestration|Extralobar pulmonary sequestration]] (EPS). | |||
* In some patients the cause can remain unknown even after exploratory thoracotomy. | |||
=== Iatrogenous haemothorax === | |||
[[Iatrogenic|Iatrogenous]] haemothorax may be caused by either intrathoracic vessel cannulation, chest drain insertion, needle [[thoracocentesis]], pleural or lung [[Biopsy|biopsies]], closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation, placement of subclavian- or jugular-catheters, endoscopic thoracic interventions, cardiopulmonary surgery, [[sclerotherapy]] of [[oesophageal varices]], rupture of pulmonary arteries after placement of Schwann–Ganz catheters, [[Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy|thoracic sympathectomy]] or [[Aortography|translumbar aortography]]. surgical procedures such as releasing the pleurae from the [[Vertebra|vertebrae]], or the removal and [[curettage]] of intervertebral discs and [[cartilage]] end plates. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{reflist|2}} | {{reflist|2}} | ||
[[Category:Cardiology]] | [[Category:Cardiology]] | ||
[[Category:Pulmonology]] | [[Category:Pulmonology]] | ||
[[Category:Surgery]] | [[Category:Surgery]] | ||
[[Category:Emergency medicine]] | [[Category:Emergency medicine]] | ||
{{WH}} | |||
{{WS}} | |||
Latest revision as of 18:14, 31 August 2020
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Irfan Dotani Joanna Ekabua, M.D. [2]
Overview
Haemothorax may be caused by trauma or can be spontaneous and iatrogenic. Causes of traumatic haemothorax include blunt force injuries, penetrating thoracic injuries, and thoracoabdominal injuries. Causes of spontaneous haemothorax include vascular disorders, malignancies, connective tissue disorders, gynecological disorders, hematological disorders, and miscellaneous pathological entities. Haemothorax can also be a complication of various iatrogenically-related procedures. In addition, the cause of haemothorax can remain unknown even after exploratory thoracotomy.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
Causes
Common causes of hemothorax include.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
Traumatic haemothorax
Chest trauma is of three types:
- Blunt force injury cases such as those that occur in vehicular collisions and following falls or jumps from heights
- Penetrating thoracic injuries produced by a stab or gunshot wounds
- Thoracoabdominal injuries
Spontaneous or non-traumatic haemothorax
Spontaneous haemothorax is a rare clinical condition in the absence of trauma or iatrogenic causes. Bilateral spontaneous haemothorax is a very rare entity and the main cause of it is primary or metastatic pleural angiosarcoma. Causes of spontaneous haemothorax include:
- Vascular disorders causing spontaneous hemothroax include aortic aneurysm rupture, rupture of thoracic aortic dissection - dissection is due to arterial hypertension followed by atherosclerosis -, rupture of a saccular aortic aneurysm and traumatic rupture of the pericardial sac during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in individuals with hemopericardium, fatal spontaneous dissection of supra-aortic vessels without any evidence of aortic disease during pregnancy and early puerperium, bronchial artery aneurysm rupture, aneurysmatic internal thoracic artery, intercostal vessels, internal thoracic artery aneurysm, or pulmonary congenital aberrant vessels, ruptured mycotic aneurysms, innominate truncal dissection, using neck veins for mainlining and rupture of a subclavian artery aneurysm, pulmonary arteriovenous malformations (AVMs), fatal and non-fatal AVM-associated massive hemothorax is often linked to Osler–Weber–Rendu disease, associated with congenital heart disease such as rupture of a patent ductus arteriosus, Eisenmenger syndrome, aortic coarctation and bicuspid aortic valve disease.
- Malignancies causing spontaneous hemothroax include lymphangiosarcoma and vascular mediastinal schwannoma, schwanommas of von Recklinghausen disease, lymphangioma, mediastinal teratoma, metastatic choriocarcinoma, metastatic renal carcinoma, Abrikossoff tumor, pulmonary angiosarcoma, osteochondroma, Kaposiform endodermal sinus tumour, hemangioendothelioma, hemangioma, hemangiopericytoma fibrous tumor of the pleura, hepatocellular carcinoma, periosteal chondroma, chondroblastoma of the rib, synovial sarcoma, osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, neurofibrosarcoma, thymoma, mediastinal meningioma, thoracic neuroblastoma, pleural mesothelioma, chronic myeloid leukaemia, neurofibromatosis type I (Morbus von Recklinghause), chondrosarcomas, ectopic meningioma and germ cells tumors.
- Connective tissue disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include Vascular Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (Ehlers–Danlos type IV, EDS IV), Marfan syndrome, Loeys–Dietz syndrome, familial thoracic aortic aneurysm syndrome, Shprintzen–Goldberg syndrome and Type I neurofibromatosis (NF-1) or Von Recklinghausen's disease (VRD).
- Pleural disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include spontaneous pneumothorax, spontaneous pneumohemothorax (the accumulation of >400 mL of blood in the pleural cavity in association with spontaneous pneumothorax) and pleural metastasis.
- Coastal exostoses or osteochondroma occurs either sporadically or as a manifestation of a genetic disorder known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME). Lesions mainly occur in infants and children and their complications include haemothorax, pneumothorax, diaphragmatic or pericardial lacerations and visceral pleural injury.
- Gynecological disorders causing spontaneous hemothorax include Intrathoracic implantation of ectopic endometrial tissue occurs as a result of the migration of endometrial tissue through the thoracic diaphragm. Spontaneous haemothorax may be a response to cyclical hormonal changes in menstruating women.
- Hematological disorders causing spontaneous hemothroax include hemophilia, immune-mediated platelet destruction due to Many drugs such as sedatives, tranquilizers, anticonvulsants, and heparin, anticoagulant-associated hemothorax, specifically, as a result of thromboembolic disease treatment, hematology-related hemothorax include Glanzmann's thrombasthenia, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, and intrathoracic extramedullary hematopoiesis, intrathoracic intramedullary hematopoiesis due to a secondary process, such as myeloproliferative disorders, hemolytic anemia, hereditary spherocytosis, chronic asthma, and Gaucher disease, beta thalassemia, rupture of extramedullary hematopoietic pulmonary nodules, haemothorax has been also reported in the setting of plasminogen activator user for venous thrombosis in patient with pneumonia.
- Miscellaneous causing spontaneous hemothroax include tuberculosis, necrotizing lung infection, uremia, spontaneous hemothorax secondary to a ruptured parasitic hydatid (Echinococcal) cyst of pulmonary parenchyma, Malaria is another rare parasitic etiology for spontaneous hemothorax, amyloidosis-induced spontaneous mediastinal hemorrhage with hemothorax due to perivascular and vascular wall involvement, systemic diseases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and Henoch-Schönlein purpura, pulmonary emboli, ectopic pregnancy, Extralobar pulmonary sequestration (EPS).
- In some patients the cause can remain unknown even after exploratory thoracotomy.
Iatrogenous haemothorax
Iatrogenous haemothorax may be caused by either intrathoracic vessel cannulation, chest drain insertion, needle thoracocentesis, pleural or lung biopsies, closed-chest cardiopulmonary resuscitation, placement of subclavian- or jugular-catheters, endoscopic thoracic interventions, cardiopulmonary surgery, sclerotherapy of oesophageal varices, rupture of pulmonary arteries after placement of Schwann–Ganz catheters, thoracic sympathectomy or translumbar aortography. surgical procedures such as releasing the pleurae from the vertebrae, or the removal and curettage of intervertebral discs and cartilage end plates.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Çiledağ A, Çelik G, Köycü G, Gürsoy E, Yüksel C (2012). "[A rare complication of oral anticoagulant treatment: hemothorax]". Tuberk Toraks (in Turkish). 60 (1): 70–3. PMID 22554372.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ávila Martínez RJ, Hernández Voth A, Marrón Fernández C, Hermoso Alarza F, Martínez Serna I, Mariscal de Alba A, Zuluaga Bedoya M, Trujillo MD, Meneses Pardo JC, Díaz Hellin V, Larru Cabrero E, Gámez García AP (May 2013). "Evolution and complications of chest trauma". Arch. Bronconeumol. 49 (5): 177–80. doi:10.1016/j.arbres.2012.12.005. PMID 23415575.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Janik M, Straka L, Krajcovic J, Hejna P, Hamzik J, Novomesky F (March 2014). "Non-traumatic and spontaneous hemothorax in the setting of forensic medical examination: a systematic literature survey". Forensic Sci. Int. 236: 22–9. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2013.12.013. PMID 24529771.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Rad MG, Mahmodlou R, Mohammadi A, Mladkova N, Noorozinia F (2011). "Spontaneous massive hemothorax secondary to chest wall chondrosarcoma: a case report". Tuberk Toraks. 59 (2): 168–72. PMID 21740393.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Boersma WG, Stigt JA, Smit HJ (November 2010). "Treatment of haemothorax". Respir Med. 104 (11): 1583–7. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2010.08.006. PMID 20817498.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Patrini D, Panagiotopoulos N, Pararajasingham J, Gvinianidze L, Iqbal Y, Lawrence DR (March 2015). "Etiology and management of spontaneous haemothorax". J Thorac Dis. 7 (3): 520–6. doi:10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2014.12.50. PMC 4387396. PMID 25922734.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kara A, Yarali N, Fisgin T, Duru F (2002). "Spontaneous haemothorax: an uncommon presentation of Glanzmann thrombasthenia". Acta Paediatr. 91 (10): 1139–40. PMID 12434904.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Hammoudeh M, Qaddoumi NK (December 1993). "Pleural haemorrhage in Henoch Schonlein purpura". Clin. Rheumatol. 12 (4): 538–9. PMID 8124921.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ogura Y, Watanabe K, Hosogane N, Toyama Y, Matsumoto M (April 2013). "Acute respiratory failure due to hemothorax after posterior correction surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a case report". BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 14: 132. doi:10.1186/1471-2474-14-132. PMC 3636110. PMID 23577922.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Cantey EP, Walter JM, Corbridge T, Barsuk JH (July 2016). "Complications of thoracentesis: incidence, risk factors, and strategies for prevention". Curr Opin Pulm Med. 22 (4): 378–85. doi:10.1097/MCP.0000000000000285. PMID 27093476.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dontigny L (November 1978). "Management of critical emergencies in chest trauma". Can J Surg. 21 (6): 516–8. PMID 737589.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Zhao Y, Li GY, Yang Z, Zhang P, Zhang K, Shao G (October 2010). "Bilateral heterochronic spontaneous hemothorax caused by pulmonary arteriovenous malformation in a gravid: a case report". J Cardiothorac Surg. 5: 96. doi:10.1186/1749-8090-5-96. PMC 2987927. PMID 21034516.