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| {{Amnesia}} | | {{Amnesia}} |
| {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{ADI}} | | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} {{ZMalik}} |
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| ==Overview== | | ==Overview== |
| Amnesia can classified based upon various neuropsychopathologies. It is important to consider the etiological, organic, progressive and clinical criteria in amnesia classification. Amnesia can be classified based on the temporal nature of the amnesia, which is anterograde if the person forgets what occurs after the inciting event, or retrograde if the person forgets everything that occured before the inciting event. Amnesia can also be classified based upon the nature, type, and pathophysiology of the amnestic episode. | | Amnesia can be divided into two broad groups, [[retrograde amnesia]] and [[anterograde amnesia]]. [[Retrograde amnesia]] is the loss of [[memory]] prior to the onset of amnesia and [[anterograde amnesia]] is the inability to form new [[memory]]. Other types of amnesia are [[Psychological]] including [[repressive amnesia]] and [[dissociative fugue]], [[infantile]] amnesia, [[neurological]] amnesia ([[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Pick's disease]]), post-[[traumatic]] Amnesia, [[drug]]-Induced Amnesia, [[transient global amnesia]].[[Memory]] can also be divided into two groups depending on the duration, short-term [[memory]] and long-term [[memory]]. |
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| ==Classification== | | ==Classification== |
| ===Temporal Classification of Amnesia===
| | *Amnesia can be divided into two broad groups: |
| ====Anterograde Amnesia====
| | **[[Anterograde amnesia]]: The inability to form new [[memory]]. Past [[memory]] is intact. |
| ''Anterograde amnesia'' is a form of [[amnesia]], or memory loss, in which new events are not transferred from [[short-term memory]] to [[long-term memory]]. This may be a permanent deficit, or it may be temporary, such as is sometimes seen for a period of hours or days after head trauma or for a period of intoxication with an amnestic drug. The deficit makes its sufferers unable to recall an event which occurred only moments earlier when their attention has shifted to something else. Those who have theoretically pure anterograde amnesia are still able to access memories formed before its onset, but they exist in a transient world where anything beyond their immediate attention span disappears from their consciousness permanently. However, theoretically pure anterograde amnesia rarely surfaces: in reality, long-term cases nearly always occur with some degree of [[retrograde amnesia]].
| | **[[Retrograde amnesia]]: The loss of [[memory]] prior to the [[onset]] of amnesia. Patient can form new [[memories]]. |
| | *[[Memory]] can also be divided into groups depending on the duration: |
| | **Short-term [[memory]] are for short period of time and use existing [[neuronal]] network. |
| | **Long-term [[memory]] are long lasting and are formed by structural/functional changes in [[neuronal]] network.<ref name="pmid25301080">{{cite journal| author=Bisaz R, Travaglia A, Alberini CM| title=The neurobiological bases of memory formation: from physiological conditions to psychopathology. | journal=Psychopathology | year= 2014 | volume= 47 | issue= 6 | pages= 347-56 | pmid=25301080 | doi=10.1159/000363702 | pmc=4246028 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25301080 }} </ref> |
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| Anterograde amnesia is often informally, but incorrectly, called "[[short-term memory]] loss", conjuring up the idea, as in the movie ''[[Memento (film)|Memento]]'', that it is a problem of short-term memory. For this reason, formal (correct technical or scientific) usage demands the term ''anterograde amnesia'', since the deficit is ''not'' in short-term memory, but rather in encoding into more permanent, long-term memory.
| | {| class="wikitable" |
| | | !align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF | '''Types of Amnesia''' |
| "Traveler's amnesia" is a temporary form of anterograde amnesia in which victims may, for instance, realise they have changed planes during a memory gap or discover that they rented a car. This condition is caused by some medications, notably [[imidazopyridine]]s and [[benzodiazepines]], especially when they are used as sleep aids. Although medical researchers characterize this side effect as "less common",<ref name="Drugs.com">[http://www.drugs.com/MMX/Halazepam.html/ Drugs.com under "Halazepam," Benzodiazepines (Systemic), Side/Adverse effects. '''Accessed 5-20-2007.''']</ref>, the benzodiazepine [[triazolam]] (Halcion) apparently has the greatest chance of inducing traveler's amnesia, whether taken exactly as directed, varying the dosage (say, when coming off the drug too quickly), drinking alcohol, or not getting enough sleep.<ref name="Drugs.com"/> However, benzodiazepines [[alprazolam]] (Xanax) and [[nitrazepam]] (Mogadon) are also more likely to be at fault, the former on its own and the latter when the victim is sleep-deprived or in some way changing the dose.<ref name="Drugs.com"/>
| | ! align="center" style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF| '''Main Features''' |
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| Criminals may use medications with anterograde amnesic effects for [[date rape]]. Unbeknownst to the victim, the perpetrator uses drugs such as [[flunitrazepam]], [[temazepam]], and other common substances, usually in a drink, to cause disorientation; incapacitation; unconsciousness; distortions in vision, time, sense, and identity; and an uninhibited state, the hallmark of which is anterograde amnesia. <ref>[http://www.denisonia.com/police/Drug.htm/] </ref>
| | | [[Dissociative Amnesia]] ||Temporary, [[episodic]] [[retrograde memory loss]] without structural [[brain]] damage. Cause is [[psychological]] in origin. [[Dissociative Amnesia]] is also referred to as [[psychological]] amnesia. It has variable presentation: |
| | | *[[Repressed amnesia]] is seen in [[patients]] where they are unable to recall a stressful or traumatic incident from the past due to [[psychological]] [[defense mechanism]]. |
| ''Amnesia [[automatism]]'' is usually induced by [[prescription drug]]s, frequently but not necessarily in association with moderate [[alcohol]] intake. Victims have memory gaps for a period shortly after taking the drug concerned, which causes embarrassment and fear for what might have happened. Disinhibited and uncharacteristic behaviour (sometimes together with carrying out quite complex tasks - e.g. cooking and serving a nice meal, but in the nude) is sometimes witnessed during such episodes, which adds further embarrassment and distress.
| | *[[Dissociative fugue]] has been observed in these [[patients]] where the identity and [[memory]] is lost. It is reversible and has variable time duration.<ref name="pmid18086739">{{cite journal| author=Bourget D, Whitehurst L| title=Amnesia and crime. | journal=J Am Acad Psychiatry Law | year= 2007 | volume= 35 | issue= 4 | pages= 469-80 | pmid=18086739 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18086739 }} </ref><ref> American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5</ref> |
| ====Retrograde Amnesia==== | | |- |
| Retrograde amnesia is a form of [[amnesia]] where someone will be unable to recall events that occurred before the onset of amnesia. The term is used to categorise patterns of symptoms, rather than to indicate a particular cause or [[etiology]]. Both retrograde amnesia and [[anterograde amnesia]] can occur together in the same patient, and commonly result from damage to the brain regions most closely associated with [[episodic memory|episodic]]/[[declarative memory]]: the medial [[temporal lobe|temporal lobes]] and especially the [[hippocampus]]."
| | |[[Transient global amnesia]] || Sudden episodic loss of [[anterograde]] and partial [[retrograde]] [[memory]]. Usually last less than twenty four hours.<ref name="pmid19031042">{{cite journal| author=Profice P, Rizzello V, Pennestrì F, Pilato F, Della Marca G, Sestito A | display-authors=etal| title=Transient global amnesia during transoesophageal echocardiogram. | journal=Neurol Sci | year= 2008 | volume= 29 | issue= 6 | pages= 477-9 | pmid=19031042 | doi=10.1007/s10072-008-1034-y | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19031042 }} </ref> |
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| Retrograde amnesia is caused by [[Physical trauma|trauma]] that results in [[brain]] injury. Critical details of the physical changes in the brain that cause retrograde amnesia are still unknown. Retrograde amnesia is often temporally graded, meaning that remote memories are more easily accessible than events occurring just prior to the trauma ([[Ribot's Law]]). Events nearest in time to the accident that caused memory loss may never be recovered.
| | | [[Post-traumatic Amnesia]] || Amnesia that follows [[head]] [[trauma]] could be temporary or permanent. The span of memory loss is uncertain it could present with retrograde, anterograde or combined. Extent of [[injury]] and duration of [[loss of consciousness]] are important [[prognostic]] factors in determining the severity of amnesia. <ref name="pmid11475324">{{cite journal| author=Leclerc S, Lassonde M, Delaney JS, Lacroix VJ, Johnston KM| title=Recommendations for grading of concussion in athletes. | journal=Sports Med | year= 2001 | volume= 31 | issue= 8 | pages= 629-36 | pmid=11475324 | doi=10.2165/00007256-200131080-00007 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11475324 }} </ref> |
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| The [[memory]] loss may just affect specific “classes” of memory. For instance the victim, a concert pianist before, may still remember what a piano is after the onset of retrograde amnesia, but may forget how to play. The relearning rate for often used skills such as typing and math is typically faster than if they had never learned it before. While there is no cure for retrograde amnesia, “jogging” the victim’s memory by exposing them to significant articles from their past will speed the rate of recall.
| | | [[Infantile]] Amnesia|| Also known as childhood amnesia. Early childhood memory is lost, usually up to the age of fours year. Influenced by cultural norms and [[sexual]] [[repression]].<ref name="pmid12653489">{{cite journal| author=Wang Q| title=Infantile amnesia reconsidered: a cross-cultural analysis. | journal=Memory | year= 2003 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 | pages= 65-80 | pmid=12653489 | doi=10.1080/741938173 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12653489 }} </ref> |
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| The victim of retrograde amnesia may feel embarrassed or stressed that they no longer remember key people and significant events. Typically the victim may be overwhelmed by the rush of well-wishers who seek to reacquaint themselves. It is important to let the amnesiac go at his or her “own pace,” so they are not overly stressed. Forgotten relations forget that they are effectively meeting the victim for the “first time” and may make the victim uncomfortable through displays of friendship such as kissing or slapping on the back that, while appropriate for longtime relationships, are not appropriate for “first time” meetings.
| | | [[Drug]]-Induced Amnesia||[[Benzodiazepine]] are the most common group of [[drugs]] that can cause [[drug]]-induced amnesia, especially if used with [[alcohol]]. [[Memory]] loss could be long term or short term.<ref> Sadock, Benjamin J., and Virginia A. Sadock. Kaplan & Sadock's concise textbook of clinical psychiatry. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008. Print</ref> Amnesia is anterograde from the time the drug was introduced and patient has impairment in forming new memories. It is reversible upon discontinuation of the [[drug]]. |
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| :These terms are used to categorize patterns of symptoms, rather than to indicate a particular cause or [[etiology]]. Both categories of amnesia can occur together in the same patient, and commonly result from drug effects or damage to brain regions most closely associated with [[episodic memory|episodic]]/[[declarative memory]]: the medial [[temporal lobe]]s and the [[hippocampus]].
| | | [[Neurological]] Amnesia||[[Alzheimer's Disease]], [[Pick's Disease]], [[Parkinson's Disease]] |
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| :An example of mixed retrograde and anterograde amnesia may be a motorcyclist unable to recall driving his motorbike prior to his head injury (retrograde amnesia) and an inability to recall the hospital ward where he is told he had conversations with family over the past two days (anterograde amnesia). | | | Amnesia in [[Korsakoff’s Syndrome]]|| Caused by [[thiamine]] [[deficiency]] due to prolonged [[alcohol]] use or severe [[malnutrition]]. [[Anterograde amnesia]], [[retrograde amnesia]], and [[confabulation]].<ref>Kolb, Bryan, and Ian Q. Whishaw. Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers, 2003. Print.</ref> |
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| ===Other Types of Amnesia=== | | | [[Selective Amnesia]] || Certain [[memory]] is lost. [[Patient]] may forget about certain relationships, talents, events, or [[traumatic]] incidents. |
| ====Dissociative or Functional or Psychogenic Amnesia====
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| Psychogenic amnesia, also known as functional or dissociative amnesia, is a disorder characterized by abnormal memory functioning in the absence of structural brain damage or a known neurobiological cause; severe cases are very rare.<ref name = Brandt>{{cite journal |author=Brandt J, Van Gorp WG |title=Functional ("psychogenic") amnesia |journal=Semin Neurol |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=331–40 |year=2006 |pmid=16791779 |doi=10.1055/s-2006-945519}}</ref> It is defined by the presence of [[retrograde amnesia]] or the inability to retrieve stored memories and events leading up to the onset of amnesia and an absence of [[anterograde amnesia]] or the inability to form new long term memories.<ref name = Markowitsch>{{cite journal |author=Markowitsch HJ |title=Psychogenic amnesia |journal=Neuroimage |volume=20 Suppl 1 |issue= |pages=S132–8 |year=2003 |pmid=14597306 |doi=}}</ref><ref name = Yasuno>{{cite journal |author=Yasuno F, Nishikawa T, Nakagawa Y, ''et al'' |title=Functional anatomical study of psychogenic amnesia |journal=Psychiatry Res |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=43–57 |year=2000 |pmid=10891648 |doi=}}</ref><ref name = Ross>{{cite journal |author=Mackenzie Ross S |title=Profound retrograde amnesia following mild head injury: organic or functional? |journal=Cortex |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=521–37 |year=2000 |pmid=11059453 |doi=}}</ref> In most cases, patients lose their autobiographical memory and personal identity even though they are able to learn new information and perform everyday functions normally. Other times, there may be a loss of basic semantic knowledge and procedural skills such as reading and writing.<ref name = Serra>{{cite journal |author=Serra L, Fadda L, Buccione I, Caltagirone C, Carlesimo GA |title=Psychogenic and organic amnesia: a multidimensional assessment of clinical, neuroradiological, neuropsychological and psychopathological features |journal=Behav Neurol |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=53–64 |year=2007 |pmid=17297220 |doi=}}</ref>
| | |[[Epileptic]] Amnesia|| Observed in [[patients]] with [[temporal lobe]] [[epilepsy]].<ref name="pmid12244076">{{cite journal| author=Kopelman MD| title=Disorders of memory. | journal=Brain | year= 2002 | volume= 125 | issue= Pt 10 | pages= 2152-90 | pmid=12244076 | doi=10.1093/brain/awf229 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12244076 }} </ref> [[Anterograde amnesia]] with [[short-term memory]] loss. |
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| There are two types of psychogenic amnesia, global and situation-specific.<ref name = Serra/><ref name = Kopelman>{{cite journal |author=Kopelman MD |title=Disorders of memory |journal=Brain |volume=125 |issue=Pt 10 |pages=2152–90 |year=2002 |pmid=12244076 |doi=|url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/125/10/2152 | accessdate = 2008-04-05}}</ref> Global amnesia, also known as [[fugue state]], refers to a sudden loss of personal identity that lasts a few hours to days.<ref name = Ross/> This is preceded by severe stress and/or depressed mood. Fugue state is very rare, and usually resolves over time, often helped by therapy.<ref name="myers"/> Situation-specific amnesia is a type of dissociative amnesia occurs as a result of a severely stressful event, as in [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]. Dissociative amnesia is due to psychological rather than physiological causes and can sometimes be helped by therapy.<ref name="myers">{{cite web | url = http://www.memorylossonline.com/glossary/psychogenicamnesia.html | title = Memory Loss & The Brain | publisher = [[Rutgers University]] | accessdate = 2007-12-05 | last = Myers | first = Catherine E. | year = 2006 }}</ref>
| | |[[Lacunar amnesia]]|| [[Memory]] of a particular event is lost. [[Lacuna]] mean 'a gap', which refers to leaving 'a gap' in [[memory]].<ref name="pmid747264">{{cite journal| author=Benezech M, Leyssenne JP| title=[Lacunar amnesia and criminal behaviour : realities and medico-legal consequences]. | journal=Ann Med Psychol (Paris) | year= 1978 | volume= 136 | issue= 6-8 | pages= 918-29 | pmid=747264 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=747264 }} </ref> |
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| [[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]] can include :-
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| =====Repressed Memory=====
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| Repressed memory is one of the most controversial subjects in the history of psychology and psychiatry. A repressed memory, according to some theories of [[psychology]], is a [[memory]] (often [[Psychological trauma|trauma]]tic) of an event or environment which is stored by the [[unconscious mind]] but outside the awareness of the [[conscious mind]]. Some theorize that these memories may be recovered (that is, integrated into consciousness) years or decades after the event, often via [[psychotherapy|therapy]]. They may also reoccur in [[dreams]]. The theory of ''dissociative amnesia'' makes the assumption that memory repression is possible. Conservative estimates show that at least ten percent of all people sexually abused in childhood will experience periods of total amnesia for the abuse they suffered. This will be followed by delayed recall experiences <ref>[http://www.jimhopper.com/memory/ Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse Scientific Research & Scholarly Resources by Jim Hopper, PhD.] </ref> Peer reviewed and clinical studies continue to document the existence of recovered memory. <ref>[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Taubman_Center/Recovmem/ Recovered Memory Project]</ref> There are over one hundred corroborated cases of recovered memory in legal, clinical and scientific case studies. <ref>
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| [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Taubman_Center/Recovmem/archive.html Recovered Memory Project Archive]</ref> The repressed memory concept was popularized during the 1980s and partly the 1990s by the popular press, some feminist groups, and some psychological schools of thought; however it is suffering a retreat in popularity with professionals and the public during recent years after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations concerning it.<ref>Robbins Susan P.,The Social and Cultural Context of Satanic Ritual Abuse Allegations, published in Institute for Psychological Therapies magazine, vol 10 1998.[http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume10/j10_8.htm]</ref> The concept was originated by [[Sigmund Freud]] in his 1896 essay ''Zur Ätiologie der Hysterie'' ("On the etiology of hysteria"), however Freud himself abandoned his theory between 1897-1905, and during 1920-1923 replaced it with his impulse-based concept of ''[[Ego, super-ego, and id|Id]]'', ''[[Super-ego]]'', and ''[[Ego, super-ego, and id|Ego]]''. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] was the first to suggest an active, conscious thought management method in the second essay of his [[On the Genealogy of Morals]] as a necessary fundament of efficiency, responsibility, and maturity. The theory of repressed memories must not be confused with the established psychological concept of [[psychological repression|repression]] in general which stresses impulses instead of memories. This contrasts with anterograde amnesia caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or alcohol, where an experience was prevented from being transferred from temporary to permanent memory storage because it was never stored in the first place.
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| =====Dissociative Fugue=====
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| A Fugue state is a state of mind characterized by abandonment of personal identity, along with the [[memories]], [[personality]] and other identifying characteristics of individuality. The Fugue state is a condition of Dissociative Fugue (''formerly'' ''Psychogenic Fugue'') ''([[DSM-IV Codes#Dissociative Disorders|DSM-IV Dissociative Disorders]] 300.13<ref name="DSM-IV_300.13">Dissociative Fugue (''formerly'' Psychogenic Fugue) ( [http://www.psychiatryonline.com/content.aspx?aID=9744 DSM-IV 300.13, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition])</ref>)''.
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| The [[etiology]] of the fugue state is related to ''[[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]], ([[DSM-IV Codes]] 300.12<ref> [http://www.psychiatryonline.com/content.aspx?aID=9708 Dissociative Amnesia, DSM-IV Codes 300.12 ( Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition )]</ref>)'' which has several other subtypes: Selective Amnesia, Generalised Amnesia, Continuous Amnesia, Systematised Amnesia, in addition to the subtype ''Dissociative Fugue''<ref name="DSM-IV_300.13"/>.
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| Unlike [[retrograde amnesia]] (which is popularly referred to simply as "amnesia", the state where someone completely forgets who they are), ''[[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]]'' is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, ''[[DSM-IV Codes]] 291.1 & 292.83'') or a neurological or other general medical condition (e.g., Amnestic Disorder due to a head trauma, ''[[DSM-IV Codes]] 294.0'')<ref name="PsychNet-UK.com"> [http://www.psychnet-uk.com/dsm_iv/_misc/complete_tables.htm Complete List of DSM-IV Codes ( PsychNet-UK.com )]</ref>. It is a complex neuropsychological process<ref>[http://www.dissociation.co.uk/background.asp Background to Dissociation ( The Pottergate Centre for Dissociation & Trauma )]</ref>.
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| As the person experiencing a Dissociative fugue may have recently suffered the reappearance of an event or person representing an earlier life trauma, the emergence of an armoring or defensive personality seems to be for some, a logical apprehension of the situation. Therefore, the terminology ''fugue state'' may carry a slight linguistic distinction from ''[[dissociation (psychology)|Dissociative]] Fugue'', the former implying a greater degree of ''motion''. For the purposes of this article then, a ''fugue state'' would occur while one is ''acting out'' a ''Dissociative Fugue''.
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| The [[DSM-IV]] defines <ref name="DSM-IV_300.13"/> as:
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| *sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary place of work, with inability to recall one's past,
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| *confusion about personal identity, or the assumption of a new identity, or
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| *significant distress or impairment.
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| The ''[[Merck Manual]]'' <ref name="Merck">[[Merck Manual]] [[1999]] section 15 (Psychiatric Disorders), chapter 188 (Dissociative Disorders)</ref> defines ''Dissociative Fugue'' as:
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| : One or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home.
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| In support of this definition, the ''Merck Manual'' <ref name="Merck"/> further defines ''[[Psychogenic amnesia|Dissociative Amnesia]]'' as:
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| : An inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness.
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| =====Posthypnotic Amnesia=====
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| Posthypnotic amnesia is where events during [[hypnosis]] are forgotten, or where past memories are unable to be recalled.
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| =====Lacunar Amnesia=====
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| Lacunar amnesia is the loss of [[memory]] about one specific event. It is a type of [[amnesia]] that leaves a [[lacuna]] (a gap) in the record of memory.
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| =====Childhood Amnesia=====
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| Childhood [[amnesia]] is the common inability of [[adult]]s to remember the earliest years of their [[childhood]]. Infantile, or childhood amnesia is characterized by the relative absence of memory before 3 or 4 years of age. It is important to note that the term does not refer to complete absence of memories, but the relative scarcity of memories during infancy — a scarcity that cannot be accounted for by a [[forgetting curve]]. Additionally, the boundary is malleable and can be influenced by both individual experiences (Usher & Neisser, 1993) and cultural factors (Wang, 2001). Research has demonstrated that children are adept learners and are quick to acquire and retain information. Children do remember events; however, these memories accessible as children are lost to infantile amnesia in adulthood (Bauer, 2004; Fivush, et al., 1987). Whilst [[Sigmund Freud]] attributed this to sexual repression, others have theorised that this may be due to [[language development]] or immature parts of the brain.
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| =====Post-traumatic Amnesia=====
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| Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) is a state of [[mental confusion|confusion]] that occurs immediately following a [[traumatic brain injury]] in which the injured person is [[Orientation (mental) |disoriented]] and unable to remember events that occur after the [[physical injury|injury]].<ref name="LeeLK07">
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=Lee LK |title=Controversies in the Sequelae of Pediatric Mild Traumatic Brain Injury |journal=Pediatric Emergency Care |volume=23 |issue=8 |pages=580–583; quiz 584–586 |year=2007 |pmid=17726422 |doi=10.1097/PEC.0b013e31813444ea
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| </ref> The person may be unable to state his or her name, where he or she is, and what time it is.<ref name="LeeLK07"/> When continuous [[memory]] returns, PTA is considered to have resolved.<ref name="Petchprapai07">
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=Petchprapai N, Winkelman C |title=Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Determinants and Subsequent Quality of Life. A Review of the Literature |journal=Journal of Neuroscience Nursing |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=260–272 |year=2007 |pmid=17966292
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| </ref> While PTA lasts, new events cannot be stored in the memory.<ref name="vanderNaalt">
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=van der Naalt J |title=Prediction of Outcome in Mild to Moderate Head Injury: A Review |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=837–851 |year=2001 |pmid=11910548 |doi=10.1076/jcen.23.6.837.1018
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| }}
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| </ref> About a third of patients with [[mild head injury]] are reported to have "islands of memory", in which the patient can recall only some events.<ref name="vanderNaalt"/>
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| Both retrograde and anterograde forms may be referred to as PTA,<ref name=cantu01>
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| {{
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| cite journal|author=Cantu RC |date=2001 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=155413 |title=Posttraumatic Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia: Pathophysiology and Implications in Grading and Safe Return to Play |journal=Journal of Athletic Training |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=244–248 |pmid=12937491
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| </ref> or the term may be used to refer only to anterograde amnesia.<ref name=sivak>
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=Sivák Š, Kurča E, Jančovič D, Petriščák Š, Kučera P |year=2005
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| |url=http://www.clsjep.cz/odkazy/clc0507_445.pdf |format=PDF |title=An Outline of the Current Concepts of Mild Brain Injury with Emphasis on the Adult Population |journal=Časopis Lėkařů Českých |volume=144 |issue=7 |pages=445–450
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| }}
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| </ref>
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| Frequently the last symptom to ameliorate after a loss of consciousness,<ref name=cantu01/> anterograde amnesia may not develop until hours after the injury.<ref name="Binder86">
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=Binder LM |title=Persisting Symptoms after Mild Head Injury: A Review of the Postconcussive Syndrome |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology|volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=323–346 |year=1986 |pmid=3091631 |doi=10.1080/01688638608401325
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| }}
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| </ref> A common example in sports concussion is the quarterback who was able to conduct the complicated mental tasks of leading a [[football team]] after a concussion, but has no recollection the next day of the part of the game that took place after the injury. Retrograde amnesia sufferers may partially regain memory later, but memories are not regained with anterograde amnesia because they were not [[Encoding (memory)|encoded]] properly.<ref name="Rees03">
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| {{
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| cite journal |author=Rees PM |title=Contemporary Issues in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury |journal=Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation |volume=84 |issue=12 |pages=1885–1894 |year=2003 |pmid=14669199 |doi=
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| }}
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| </ref>
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| =====Transient Global Amnesia=====
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| Transient global amnesia (TGA), is an anxiety-producing temporary loss of [[short-term memory]]. Typically, patients will not be able to remember events for the past few hours, and not be able to retain new information for more than a few minutes. Patients will suffer the effects of TGA for up to 24 hours, after which symptoms resolve.
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| =====Source Amnesia=====
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| The disorder is particularly episodic, where source or contextual information surrounding facts are severely distorted or unable to be recalled. Via the use of the [[Wisconsin_card_sort|Wisconsin Card Sorting Task]] (WCST) developed by [[Esta Berg]] in 1948, [[Positron_emission_tomography|Positron Emission Tomography]] (PET), and explicit and implicit memory tests, researchers have performed extensive empirical research on source-amnesiacs and concluded or suggested neuropsychological genesis.
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| [[Daniel Schacter]] and [[Endel Tulving]] have each proposed that memory for facts is differentiated from memory for context. The neuropsychological implications as in brain maturation, deterioration in the normal aging course, and damage are conveyed. The organic deterioration of the frontal lobes in the process of normal aging has a greater influence on episodic memory than perhaps premature lobes in young children. Source amnesia has the ability to alter one's confidence in their memory encoded in differing conditions (i.e. conscious state or in dreaming), as in [[memory distrust syndrome]], an inclusive disorder. Source amnesia was first presented and examined in the [[hypnotic]] environment, and further understanding the [[human memory process]] is essential in unraveling this condition.
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| As source amnesia prohibits recollection of the context specific information surrounding facts in experienced events, there is also the inclusive case of confusion concerning the content or context of events, a highly attributable factor to [[confabulation]] in brain disease. Such confusion was termed memory distrust syndrome by [[Gisli Gudjonsson|Gudjonsson]] and [[MacKeith]].
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| A condition similar to source amnesia sometimes occurs in [[dream]]s, when the dreamer has some knowledge about details of the imaginary environment but has no idea how they learned this information.
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| =====Memory Distrust Syndrome=====
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| As [[source amnesia]] prohibits recollection of the context-specific information surrounding facts in experienced events, there is also the inclusive case of confusion concerning the content or context of events, a highly attributable factor to [[confabulation]] in [[brain disease]]. Such confusion has been loosely termed memory distrust syndrome by [[Gisli Gudjonsson|Gudjonsson]] and [[MacKeith]] in [[1982]]. A person who suffers from memory distrust syndrome may distrust his or her own memory and be motivated to rely on external (non-self) sources.
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| The overwhelming propensity to accept information from external sources (i.e. an interrogator) based on the influence of susceptibility has led to well documented false confessions. In addition, the credibility of a witness account who suffers from memory distrust syndrome is more questionable. In a parallel situation, amnesic individuals may have a greater propensity to have their memory manipulated and perhaps perform non-advantageous acts on the "direction" of external sources and have difficulty in differentiating imaginary and real experiences. Since it is an identified and natural occurrence that [[source amnesia]] pathology exists in the criminal law system, psychiatrists should increasingly take assessment and identification measures to isolate such a disorder on accused individuals and eye-witnesses.
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| =====Blackout Phenomenon=====
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| A blackout is a phenomenon caused by the intake of [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in which long term memory creation is impaired. Blackouts are frequently described as having effects similar to that of [[anterograde amnesia]]. 'Blacking out' is not to be confused with the [[mutually exclusive]] act of '[[fainting|passing out]]'. Blackouts can generally be divided into two categories, "en bloc" blackouts, and "fragmentary" blackouts. En bloc blackouts are classified by the inability to later recall any memories from the intoxicated period, even when prompted. These blackouts are characterized also by the ability to easily recall things that have occurred within the last 2 minutes, yet inability to recall anything prior to this period. As such, a person experiencing an en bloc blackout may not appear to be doing so, as they can carry on conversations or even manage to accomplish difficult feats such as driving cars. It is difficult to determine the end of this type of blackout as sleep typically occurs before they end. <ref>GOODWIN, D.W; CRANE, J.B.; AND GUZE, S.B. Alcoholic "blackouts": A review and clinical study of 100 alcoholics. American Journal of Psychiatry 126:191-198, 1969.</ref> Fragmentary blackouts are characterized by the ability to recall certain events from an intoxicated period, yet be unaware that other memories are missing until reminded of the existence of these 'gaps' in memory. Research indicates that fragmentary blackouts are far more common than en bloc blackouts. <ref>WHITE, A.M.; SIGNER, M.L.; KRAUS, C.L.; AND SWARTZWELDER, H.S. Experiential aspects of alcohol-induced blackouts among college students. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 2004 in press.</ref>
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| =====[[Korsakoff's Syndrome]]=====
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| Korsakoff's syndrome can result from long-term alcoholism or malnutrition. It is caused by brain damage due to a Vitamin B1 deficiency and will be progressive if alcohol intake and nutrition pattern are not modified. Other neurological problems are likely to be present in combination with this type of Amnesia. Korsakoff's syndrome is also known to be connected with [[confabulation]].
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
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| [[Category:Mature chapter]] | | [[Category:Mature chapter]] |
| [[Category:Memory disorders]] | | [[Category:Memory disorders]] |
| [[Category:Signs and symptoms]]
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| {{WH}} | | {{WH}} |
| {{WS}} | | {{WS}} |