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*On the other hand, more crowded life of agricultural communities, compare with hunter-gatherers, made them more vulnerable to [[infections]], especially [[zoonoses]]. Therefore, child [[mortality rate]] was raised and conclusively the [[puberty]] age was delayed, based on "'''''[[life history theory]]'''''".<ref>{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = S. C. | title = The evolution of life histories | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0198577416 }}</ref> | *On the other hand, more crowded life of agricultural communities, compare with hunter-gatherers, made them more vulnerable to [[infections]], especially [[zoonoses]]. Therefore, child [[mortality rate]] was raised and conclusively the [[puberty]] age was delayed, based on "'''''[[life history theory]]'''''".<ref>{{cite book | last = Stearns | first = S. C. | title = The evolution of life histories | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford New York | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0198577416 }}</ref> | ||
*Regarding that [[Lifestyle|life style]] was growing and the complexity of societies were increasing in the past, the process of becoming adult from child was elongated and delayed puberty happened.<ref name="urlNeocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR">{{cite web |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199304%2934%3A2%3C184%3ANSGSAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B |title=Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | *Regarding that [[Lifestyle|life style]] was growing and the complexity of societies were increasing in the past, the process of becoming adult from child was elongated and delayed puberty happened.<ref name="urlNeocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR">{{cite web |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199304%2934%3A2%3C184%3ANSGSAT%3E2.0.CO%3B2-B |title=Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR |format= |work= |accessdate=}}</ref> | ||
*In last 150 years, the menarche age is becoming lower and lower, due to the improvement of hygiene, nutrition, and infection control. On the other hand, the role of adolescents in society and concluded expectations are increased; therefore, the maturation necessitated so many qualifications to gather and delayed more and more. Nowadays, it is the first time in our history that biological maturation become well preceded from social maturation. It may encounter the adolescents to much more pressure, need to reevaluate the place of adolescents in modern life.<ref>{{cite book | last = Eveleth | first = Phyllis | title = Worldwide variation in human growth | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge England New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0521359160 }}</ref> | *In last 150 years, the menarche age is becoming lower and lower, due to the improvement of hygiene, nutrition, and infection control. On the other hand, the role of adolescents in society and concluded expectations are increased; therefore, the maturation necessitated so many qualifications to gather and delayed more and more. Nowadays, it is the first time in our history that biological maturation become well preceded from social maturation. It may encounter the adolescents to much more pressure, need to reevaluate the place of adolescents in modern life.<ref>{{cite book | last = Eveleth | first = Phyllis | title = Worldwide variation in human growth | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge England New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0521359160 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12065922">{{cite journal |vauthors=Karlberg J |title=Secular trends in pubertal development |journal=Horm. Res. |volume=57 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=19–30 |year=2002 |pmid=12065922 |doi=58096 |url=}}</ref> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:
Overview
Historical Perspective
The major theories about puberty
| Theories | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Granville Stanley Hall[1] 1844-1924 | Biogenetic psychologic theory | • First psychologist that describe the puberty and adolescence scientifically. • Describes the period as "Storm and stress" period. • A new birth, "for the higher and more completely human traits are now born" • The period is corresponding to last stage of development- Maturity. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sigmund Freud[2] 1856-1939 | Psychoanalytic theory | • This stage of life could be seen phylogenetically. • The developmental stages of psychosexuality are completely defined by genetic factors and are not dependent to environmental issues. • A holistic pathway influenced by social, emotional, and also behavioral situations. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Eduard Spranger[3] 1882-1963 | Philosophy of culture theory | • Describes the adolescence period and puberty as a distinct stage of life with its specific characteristics. • The puberty is the age that disorganized mental structure of the child become in utmost maturity. The "dominant value direction" of adolescent would be the main personality identifier. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Otto Rank[4]
1884-1939 | Independence theory | • Criticize the major role of sexuality in this process, and assume "will" as the main controller of sexuality. • The main part of puberty is to change from dependence to independence. • Beginning of the puberty, the adolescent start to struggle with dependency, both externally (parents, society, and laws) and internally (self cravings as instinctual urges). • No need to externally limit or inhibit sexualism, through which the adolescent is finding independence in front of biological needs' dominance. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Leta Hollingworth[5] 1886-1939 | Continuity of development theory | • Believes that puberty is based on continuity and progresses gradually, not through distinct stages. • Biological and social changes during puberty are not correlated. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Anna Freud[6] 1895-1982 | Defense mechanism theory | • The most important factor in formation of person's character. • Normal progression may encounter the obstacle, in which id is overriding the ego. • The defense mechanisms of ego against id are the main determinant of puberty process and outcome. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Jean Piaget[7] 1896-1980 | Cognitive theory | • The main step in puberty is growing of logical thinking. • The final stage of egocentrism happens at puberty, transitioning from childhood to adulthood. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Erik Erikson[8] 1902-1994 | Identity development theory | • Assumes that the most important issue during the period is identity crisis. • The adolescent has to find the identity, himself/herself, through evaluating the capabilities and weaknesses, and also the way they can be used. • In case the person defeated in finding an stable identity , it may lead to place him/her in self-doubt and role confusion. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Roger Barker[9] 1903-1990 | Somatopsychological theory | • Evaluates the influence of physiological changes on behavior by puberty. These changes are in body dimensions and hormonal secretion, that experience accelerated speed during adolescence. • These physical changes allow the adolescents to present in adult communities, and therefore improving behaviors and beliefs. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| James Marcia[10]
1930s-Now | Identity status theory | • Describes identity as "an internal, self-constructed, dynamic organization of drives, abilities, beliefs and individual history". • The more the person is going through puberty, the more he/she stabilizes the identity. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
- In 1904, Hall described the puberty as "storm and stress" period. The stage assumed to consist of oppositional and emotionally labile characteristics in adolescents. The future adulthood life quality is related to and also influenced from this period outline, significantly.[11]
- In 1958, Anna Freud showed that some biological and physiological changes during the puberty are the main factors contributing to "storm and stress".[12]
- In 1999, Bogin demonstrate that in human beings the time of maturation and puberty is later than other apes; which is due to more complicated childhood growth process. The suggested age of maturation in chimpanzee was 3 years earlier than humans.[13]
- Researchers have found that in a Turkana boy (from the species of Homo erectus) from 1.6 million years ago, the puberty was earlier than today humans; however, their final height were more than modern humans.[14]
- Studying the archaic humans in Pleistocene (i.e., greater than 10,000 years ago), it assumed that puberty was correlated with productivity in females. The age of menarche was between 7 and 13 years.[15]
- The discovery and growth of agriculture in archaic world is the main reason of delaying puberty age, through a negative impact on child growth. Agricultural communities in contrast with hunter-gatherer communities, experienced tougher life style and rose with so many nutrition deficits; that may lead to their delayed puberty.[16]
- On the other hand, more crowded life of agricultural communities, compare with hunter-gatherers, made them more vulnerable to infections, especially zoonoses. Therefore, child mortality rate was raised and conclusively the puberty age was delayed, based on "life history theory".[17]
- Regarding that life style was growing and the complexity of societies were increasing in the past, the process of becoming adult from child was elongated and delayed puberty happened.[18]
- In last 150 years, the menarche age is becoming lower and lower, due to the improvement of hygiene, nutrition, and infection control. On the other hand, the role of adolescents in society and concluded expectations are increased; therefore, the maturation necessitated so many qualifications to gather and delayed more and more. Nowadays, it is the first time in our history that biological maturation become well preceded from social maturation. It may encounter the adolescents to much more pressure, need to reevaluate the place of adolescents in modern life.[19][20]
References
- ↑ "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)". American Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (2): 375–381. 1904. doi:10.1176/ajp.61.2.375. ISSN 0002-953X.
- ↑ Muuss, Rolf (1996). Theories of adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070442673.
- ↑ Spranger, Eduard; Pigors, Paul John William, 1900- (1966), Types of men : the psychology and ethics of personality, (Saale) M. Niemeyer, 1928, retrieved 29 August 2017
- ↑ "Rank, O. Will therapy & Truth and reality. New York: Knopf, 1945. Pp. 307. $3.00". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2 (2): 199–199. 1946. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(194604)2:2<199::AID-JCLP2270020220>3.0.CO;2-L. ISSN 0021-9762.
- ↑ Hollingworth, Leta S. (Leta Stetter), 1886-1939, The psychology of the adolescent, by Leta S. Hollingworth, D. Appleton and Company
- ↑ Freud, Anna (1968). The ego and the mechanisms of defense. London: Hogarth P. for the Institute of Psycho-Analysis. ISBN 9780701201050.
- ↑ Piaget, Jean (2001). The psychology of intelligence. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415254014.
- ↑ Erikson, Erik (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393311440.
- ↑ "Adjustment to Physical Handicap and Illness: A Survey of the Social Psychology of Physique and Disability : Roger G. Barker, Beatrice A. Wright, Mollie R. Gonick : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive".
- ↑ Marcia, James E. (1967). "Ego identity status: relationship to change in self-esteem, "general maladjustment," and authoritarianism1". Journal of Personality. 35 (1): 118–133. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1967.tb01419.x. ISSN 0022-3506.
- ↑ "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education.G. Stanley Hall, Ph. D., LL. D., President of Clark University and Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy. (New York : D. Appleton and Company, 1904.)". American Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (2): 375–381. 1904. doi:10.1176/ajp.61.2.375. ISSN 0002-953X.
- ↑ Freud, Anna (1958). "Adolescence". The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child. 13: 255–278.
- ↑ Bogin, Barry (1999). Patterns of human growth. Cambridge, U.K. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521564380.
- ↑ Lewin, Roger (2004). Principles of human evolution. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. Co. ISBN 9780632047048.
- ↑ Gluckman PD, Hanson MA (2006). "Evolution, development and timing of puberty". Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 17 (1): 7–12. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2005.11.006. PMID 16311040.
- ↑ Diamond J (2002). "Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animal domestication". Nature. 418 (6898): 700–7. doi:10.1038/nature01019. PMID 12167878.
- ↑ Stearns, S. C. (1992). The evolution of life histories. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198577416.
- ↑ "Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language on JSTOR".
- ↑ Eveleth, Phyllis (1990). Worldwide variation in human growth. Cambridge England New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521359160.
- ↑ Karlberg J (2002). "Secular trends in pubertal development". Horm. Res. 57 Suppl 2: 19–30. doi:58096 Check
|doi=value (help). PMID 12065922.