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Revision as of 22:15, 29 January 2019

Cervical cancer Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nima Nasiri, M.D.[2]

Overview

Cervical cancer must be differentiated from other diseases that cause abnormal vaginal bleeding, such as cervical polyp, cervical leiomyoma, invasion of the cervix from primary uterine malignancy, vaginal cancer, cervical lymphoma, metastases to cervix, and cervical ectopic pregnancy.

Cervical cancer differential diagnosis

  • Cervical cancer must be differentiated from a mass involving the cervix, and causing abnormal vaginal bleeding:
  • Cervical polyp
  • Cervical leiomyoma
  • Cervical lymphoma
  • Cervical sarcoma
  • Metastases to the cervix
  • Cervical ectopic pregnancy
  • Cervicitis
  • Cervical erosion ( Ectropion )
  • IUD use
  • Pelvic inflammatory disease
  • Endometriosis
  • Adenomyosis
  • Postcoital bleeding
  • Clear cell adenocarcinoma
Diseases Clinical manifestations Para-clinical findings Gold standard
Symptoms Physical exam Lab Findings Imaging Histopathology
Abnormal

vaginal bleeding

Abnormal vaginal dyscharge Pelvic

pain

Itching or

burning of the vulva

Other Genitourinary/ Gastrointestinal symptoms B symptoms Abdominal pain Gynecological examinations Abdominal

mass

HPV Pap smear STI Panel Ultrasound MRI CT Scan
Cervical cancer[1][2][3][4][5][6]
  • Postmenopausal
  • Intermenstrual
  • Postcoital
  • Bleeding after pelvic exam
 + + +
  • Burning during urination
  • Difficulty urinating
  • Pain during sex
 +

+

  • Cervical mass on exam
 + ±
  • Negative
  • Atypical cells
 ±Chlamydia
  • Large cervical cancer
  • Angiogenesis on Doppler sonography
  • Bladder involvement
  • Lymph node involvement
 T2-weighted MRI :
  • Ovoid, heterogeneous tumor distending the cervical canal with stromal involvement.
 PET/CT scan:
  • Detect tumor size
  • Lymph node involvement,
  • Metastases to bladder or rectum
  • CIN1: mild dysplasia
  • CIN2: moderate dysplasia
  • CIN3: high degree of dysplasia/metastases
  • Colposcopy/biopsy
Cervical polyp[7]
  • Postcoital
  • Intermenstrual
  • Postmenopausal
  • Bleeding after exam
 + − − − − −
  • Mass on exam
 − − − −
  • Hyper/hypoechogenic masses with or without cysts
  • Filling the endocervical or vaginal canal
  • Epithelial cells with no nuclear atypia/mitoses
  • Hysteroscopy /Biopsy
Cervical leiomyoma[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
  • Heavy/prolonged menstrual bleeding
  • Intermenstrual bleeding
 + + −
  • Urinary retention
  • Constipation
  • Infertility
  • Bowel obstruction
  • Increase in pregnancy/labor complications
 − +
  • Large,irregular pelvic mass
 ±
− − −
  • Well circumscribed hyperechoic mass
 T2-weighted MRI:
  • Hypointense masses
  • Homogeneous

enhancement

  • Red degeneration
  • Spindle shaped smooth muscle cells
  • Mature adipocytes
  • Extracellular matrix consist of collagen,fibronectin.
  • Clinical diagnosis/ and
  • Ultrasound
Cervical lymphoma[16][17]
  • Postmenopausal bleeding
 − + −
  • Difficulty urinating
  • Post-coital pain
 + +
  • Larrge uterine/cervix mass
  • Irregularity
 + − − −
  • Well-defined, solid, concentric, hypoechoic mass
  • Small tumor cells with large nuclei
  • High mitoses and proliferation
  • Biopsy
Cervical sarcoma[18]
  • Intermentrual
  • Postmenopausal
 ± + −
  • Post-coital pain
  • Fullness in pelvic
 ± +
  • Cervical mass
  • Lump protruding from vagina/vulva
 + − − −
  • Biopsy
Cervical erosion(Ectropion)[19][20][21]
  • Light bleeding after pelvic exam
  • Spotting
 + + ±
  • Post-coital pain
  • Painful cramps
  • Pain after sex
 − + − − − −
Cervicitis[22][23]
  • Intermenstrual bleeding
  • Postcoital
  • Bleeding after pelvic exam
 + +
  • Itching
  • Pain during urination
  • Pain during sex
  • Painful menstruation
  • May have fever only
  • Red,inflammed swollen cervix
  • Inflammation/irritation of vulva/vagina
 − − −
  • Chlamydia
  • Gonorrhea
  • Herpes simplex
  • Trichomonas vaginalis
IUD use[24]
  • Heavy bleeidng
 ± +
  • Itching
  • Painful menstruation
 − − − − ±
Pelvic inflammatory diseases[25]
  • Bleeding after sex
  • Intermenstrual bleeding
 + +
  • Itching/burning
  • Pain during sex
  • Painful menstruation
  • Burning sensation during urination
  • Pain during bowel movement
  • Fever
 ±Abdominal

pain

  • Pelvic pain
  • Vaginal/vulvar tender lesion depending on microbial cause
 − − −
  • Chlamydia
  • Gonorrhea
Endometriosis[26][27][28][29]
  • Heavy mentrual bleeding
 ±
  • Pelvic pain
  • Back pain
 −
  • Painful menstruation
  • Burning/painful urination
  • Painful bowel movement
  • Pain during or after sex
  • Infertility
 − +
  • Tender uterosacral nodularity
  • Immobile uterus
  • Cervical motion tenderness
  • Retroverted uterus
 − − −
  • Visual inspection by laparascopy
Adnemyosis[30]
  • Abnormal uterine bleeding
 − + −
  • Painful menstruation
 −
  • Polypoid mass protruding into the endocervical canal.
 − − −
Cervical ectopic pregnancy[31]
  • Amennorhea
  • Bleeding after pelvic exam
 − − −
  • Pelvic pain
 − +
  • Soft and disporportionally enlarged uterus.
 − −
  • Empty uterine
  • Thickened endometrium
 T2-weighted MRI:
  • Hypointense large mass

T1-weighted MRI:

  • Partially hyperintense mass
  • Necrotic hemorrhagic mass with chorionic villus
  • Hysterectomy and biopsy
DES exposure (Clear cell adenocarcinoma)[32]
  • Postcoital bleeding
 + − − −
Paget's disease of vulva to cervix[33][34][35]
  • Bleeding from lesion
  • Oozing
 ± −
  • Itching/burning
  • Pain in vulva
 −
−
  • Scaly eczematoid lesion in vulva.
  • Erythematous plaques with white scaling.
  • Inguinal lymphadenopathy in case of metastases.
 − − − −
  • Intraepidermal adenocarcinoma which involves epidermis
  • Biopsy of lesion
Vaginal cancer[36]
  • Postcoital bleeding

+

  • Tenesmus
  • Dysuria
  • Urinary frequency
  • Constipation
  • Pelvic pain
  • Vaginal lump
  • Inguinal lymphadenopathy
 − − −
Nabothian cyst[37][38][39]
  • Postcoital bleeding
 + − −
  • Pain during sex
 −
  • Cystic mass on exam
 − − − −
  • Intermediate or slightly high signal intensity on T1-weighted
  • High signal intensity on T2-weighted images

References

  1. ↑ Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C (January 2013). "Symptoms and risk factors to identify women with suspected cancer in primary care: derivation and validation of an algorithm". Br J Gen Pract. 63 (606): e11–21. doi:10.3399/bjgp13X660733. PMC 3529288. PMID 23336450.
  2. ↑ Dunyo, Priscilla; Effah, Kofi; Udofia, Emilia Asuquo (2018). "Factors associated with late presentation of cervical cancer cases at a district hospital: a retrospective study". BMC Public Health. 18 (1). doi:10.1186/s12889-018-6065-6. ISSN 1471-2458.
  3. ↑ Khalife D, El Housheimi A, Khalil A, Saba C S, Seoud M, Rammal R, Abdallah IE, Abdallah R (February 2019). "Treatment of cervical cancer metastatic to the abdominal wall with reconstruction using a composite myocutaneous flap: A case report". Gynecol Oncol Rep. 27: 38–41. doi:10.1016/j.gore.2018.12.006. PMC 6302027. PMID 30603660. Vancouver style error: name (help)
  4. ↑ . doi:10.1097/PAS.0000000000000498. Check |doi= value (help). Missing or empty |title= (help)
  5. ↑ Brenner PF (September 1996). "Differential diagnosis of abnormal uterine bleeding". Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 175 (3 Pt 2): 766–9. PMID 8828559.
  6. ↑ Alcázar, Juan Luis; Arribas, Sara; Mínguez, José Angel; Jurado, Matías (2014). "The Role of Ultrasound in the Assessment of Uterine Cervical Cancer". The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of India. 64 (5): 311–316. doi:10.1007/s13224-014-0622-4. ISSN 0971-9202.
  7. ↑ Mitchell H (May 2004). "Vaginal discharge--causes, diagnosis, and treatment". BMJ. 328 (7451): 1306–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7451.1306. PMC 420177. PMID 15166070.
  8. ↑ Al-Habib A, Elgamal EA, Aldhahri S, Alokaili R, AlShamrani R, Abobotain A, AlRaddadi K, Alkhalidi H (November 2016). "Large primary leiomyoma causing progressive cervical deformity". J Surg Case Rep. 2016 (11). doi:10.1093/jscr/rjw190. PMC 5159177. PMID 27887011.
  9. ↑ Adaikkalam J (April 2016). "Lipoleiomyoma of Cervix". J Clin Diagn Res. 10 (4): EJ01–2. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2016/16505.7531. PMID 27190823.
  10. ↑ Houser, L. Murray; Carrasco, C. H.; Sheehan, C. R. (1979). "Lipomatous tumour of the uterus: radiographic and ultrasonic appearance". The British Journal of Radiology. 52 (624): 992–993. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-52-624-992. ISSN 0007-1285.
  11. ↑ Keriakos, Remon; Maher, Mark (2013). "Management of Cervical Fibroid during the Reproductive Period". Case Reports in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2013: 1–3. doi:10.1155/2013/984030. ISSN 2090-6684.
  12. ↑ Coronado GD, Marshall LM, Schwartz SM (May 2000). "Complications in pregnancy, labor, and delivery with uterine leiomyomas: a population-based study". Obstet Gynecol. 95 (5): 764–9. PMID 10775744.
  13. ↑ Kamra, Hemlata T (2013). "Myxoid Leiomyoma of Cervix". JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2013/6171.3805. ISSN 2249-782X.
  14. ↑ El-agwany, Ahmed Samy (2015). "Lipoleiomyoma of the uterine cervix: An unusual variant of uterine leiomyoma". The Egyptian Journal of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. 46 (1): 211–213. doi:10.1016/j.ejrnm.2014.10.001. ISSN 0378-603X.
  15. ↑ Chaparala RP, Fawole AS, Ambrose NS, Chapman AH (March 2004). "Large bowel obstruction due to a benign uterine leiomyoma". Gut. 53 (3): 386, 430. PMC 1773948. PMID 14960521.
  16. ↑ Grace A, O'Connell N, Byrne P, Prendiville W, O'Donnell R, Royston D, Walsh CB, Leader M, Kay E (1999). "Malignant lymphoma of the cervix. An unusual presentation and a rare disease". Eur. J. Gynaecol. Oncol. 20 (1): 26–8. PMID 10422676.
  17. ↑ Kanaan, Daniel; Parente, Daniella Braz; Constantino, Carolina Pesce Lamas; Souza, Rodrigo Canellas de (2012). "Linfoma de colo de útero: achados na ressonância magnética". Radiologia Brasileira. 45 (3): 167–169. doi:10.1590/S0100-39842012000300009. ISSN 0100-3984.
  18. ↑ Wright JD, Rosenblum K, Huettner PC, Mutch DG, Rader JS, Powell MA, Gibb RK (November 2005). "Cervical sarcomas: an analysis of incidence and outcome". Gynecol. Oncol. 99 (2): 348–51. doi:10.1016/j.ygyno.2005.06.021. PMID 16051326.
  19. ↑ Mitchell L, King M, Brillhart H, Goldstein A (September 2017). "Cervical Ectropion May Be a Cause of Desquamative Inflammatory Vaginitis". Sex Med. 5 (3): e212–e214. doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2017.03.001. PMC 5562466. PMID 28460993.
  20. ↑ Mitchell H (May 2004). "Vaginal discharge--causes, diagnosis, and treatment". BMJ. 328 (7451): 1306–8. doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7451.1306. PMC 420177. PMID 15166070.
  21. ↑ Sharma, Abhishek; Ojha, Ranapratap; Sengupta, Parama; Chattopadhyay, Sarbani; Mondal, Soumit (2013). "Cervical intramural pregnancy: Report of a rare case". Nigerian Medical Journal. 54 (4): 271. doi:10.4103/0300-1652.119670. ISSN 0300-1652.
  22. ↑ Mattson SK, Polk JP, Nyirjesy P (July 2016). "Chronic Cervicitis: Presenting Features and Response to Therapy". J Low Genit Tract Dis. 20 (3): e30–3. doi:10.1097/LGT.0000000000000225. PMID 27243142.
  23. ↑ Rosenfeld WD, Clark J (June 1989). "Vulvovaginitis and cervicitis". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 36 (3): 489–511. PMID 2660084.
  24. ↑ Trobough GE (March 1978). "Pelvic pain and the IUD". J Reprod Med. 20 (3): 167–74. PMID 347074.
  25. ↑ Hoenderboom BM, van Benthem B, van Bergen J, Dukers-Muijrers N, Götz HM, Hoebe C, Hogewoning AA, Land JA, van der Sande M, Morré SA, van den Broek I (January 2019). "Relation between Chlamydia trachomatis infection and pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy and tubal factor infertility in a Dutch cohort of women previously tested for chlamydia in a chlamydia screening trial". Sex Transm Infect. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2018-053778. PMID 30606817. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  26. ↑ Hsu AL, Khachikyan I, Stratton P (June 2010). "Invasive and noninvasive methods for the diagnosis of endometriosis". Clin Obstet Gynecol. 53 (2): 413–9. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e3181db7ce8. PMC 2880548. PMID 20436318.
  27. ↑ Chamié, Luciana Pardini; Blasbalg, Roberto; Pereira, Ricardo Mendes Alves; Warmbrand, Gisele; Serafini, Paulo Cesar (2011). "Findings of Pelvic Endometriosis at Transvaginal US, MR Imaging, and Laparoscopy". RadioGraphics. 31 (4): E77–E100. doi:10.1148/rg.314105193. ISSN 0271-5333.
  28. ↑ Datta S, Kunde K (July 2008). "From vaginal discharge to endometriosis: an unusual case of endometriosis in pregnancy". J Obstet Gynaecol. 28 (5): 552–3. doi:10.1080/01443610802247352. PMID 18850447.
  29. ↑ Chamié, Luciana Pardini; Blasbalg, Roberto; Pereira, Ricardo Mendes Alves; Warmbrand, Gisele; Serafini, Paulo Cesar (2011). "Findings of Pelvic Endometriosis at Transvaginal US, MR Imaging, and Laparoscopy". RadioGraphics. 31 (4): E77–E100. doi:10.1148/rg.314105193. ISSN 0271-5333.
  30. ↑ Filip G, Balzano A, Cagnacci A (November 2018). "Histological evaluation of the prevalence of adenomyosis, myomas and of their concomitance". Minerva Ginecol. doi:10.23736/S0026-4784.18.04291-0. PMID 30486633.
  31. ↑ Mouhajer M, Obed S, Okpala AM (June 2017). "Cervical Ectopic Pregnancy in Resource Deprived Areas: A Rare and Difficult Diagnosis". Ghana Med J. 51 (2): 94–97. PMC 5611908. PMID 28955106.
  32. ↑ Tantitamit T, Hamontri S, Rangsiratanakul L (May 2017). "Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the cervix in second generation young women who are without maternal exposure to diethylstilbestrol: A case report". Gynecol Oncol Rep. 20: 34–36. doi:10.1016/j.gore.2017.02.008. PMC 5328756. PMID 28275694.
  33. ↑ van der Linden, M.; Meeuwis, K.A.P.; Bulten, J.; Bosse, T.; van Poelgeest, M.I.E.; de Hullu, J.A. (2016). "Paget disease of the vulva". Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology. 101: 60–74. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2016.03.008. ISSN 1040-8428.
  34. ↑ Lloyd J, Evans DJ, Flanagan AM (July 1999). "Extension of extramammary Paget disease of the vulva to the cervix". J. Clin. Pathol. 52 (7): 538–40. PMC 501500. PMID 10605411.
  35. ↑ Shaco-Levy R, Bean SM, Vollmer RT, Papalas JA, Bentley RC, Selim MA, Robboy SJ (January 2010). "Paget disease of the vulva: a histologic study of 56 cases correlating pathologic features and disease course". Int. J. Gynecol. Pathol. 29 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1097/PGP.0b013e3181b1cc5e. PMID 19952933.
  36. ↑ Tarney CM, Han J (2014). "Postcoital bleeding: a review on etiology, diagnosis, and management". Obstet Gynecol Int. 2014: 192087. doi:10.1155/2014/192087. PMC 4086375. PMID 25045355.
  37. ↑ Casey PM, Long ME, Marnach ML (February 2011). "Abnormal cervical appearance: what to do, when to worry?". Mayo Clin. Proc. 86 (2): 147–50, quiz 151. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0512. PMC 3031439. PMID 21270291.
  38. ↑ Bin Park, Sung; Lee, Jong Hwa; Lee, Young Ho; Song, Mi Jin; Choi, Hye Jeong (2010). "Multilocular Cystic Lesions in the Uterine Cervix: Broad Spectrum of Imaging Features and Pathologic Correlation". American Journal of Roentgenology. 195 (2): 517–523. doi:10.2214/AJR.09.3619. ISSN 0361-803X.
  39. ↑ Okamoto, Yoshikazu; Tanaka, Yumiko O.; Nishida, Masato; Tsunoda, Hajime; Yoshikawa, Hiroyuki; Itai, Yuji (2003). "MR Imaging of the Uterine Cervix: Imaging-Pathologic Correlation". RadioGraphics. 23 (2): 425–445. doi:10.1148/rg.232025065. ISSN 0271-5333.

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