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==Prognosis==
==Prognosis==
There is no cure.<ref name=CCD/> Children recover occasionally, sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not; it is not known how often this happens.<ref name=Rogers/> Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name=Burgess>{{cite journal |author= Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |date=2007 |title= Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal= Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x}}</ref> Although core difficulties remain, symptoms often become less severe in later childhood.<ref name=Howlin06>{{cite journal |author= Howlin P |title= Autism spectrum disorders |journal=Psychiatry |volume=5 |issue=9 |date=2006 |pages=320–4 |doi=10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.06.007}}</ref> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=234–47 |date=2004 |title= Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism |author= Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20038 |pmid=15666341 |url=http://waisman.wisc.edu/family/pdf/seltzer_trajectory.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-04-17}}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR |title= Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal= Can J Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=517–25 |date=2003 |pmid=14574827 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp}}</ref> A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care.<ref name=Howlin>{{cite journal |author= Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M |title= Adult outcome for children with autism |journal= J Child Psychol Psychiatry |date=2004 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=212–29 |pmid=14982237 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x}}</ref> A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=351–60 |title= Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood |author= Billstedt E, Gillberg C, Gillberg C |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5 |pmid=16119476}}</ref> A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); only 56% had ever been employed, most in volunteer, sheltered or part time work.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |date=2008 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=739–47 |title= Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders |author= Eaves LC, Ho HH |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x |pmid=17764027}}</ref> Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children.<ref name=Newschaffer/>
There is no cure.<ref name=CCD/> Children recover occasionally, sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not; it is not known how often this happens.<ref name=Rogers/> Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or [[Self-determination theory|self-determination]].<ref name=Burgess>{{cite journal |author= Burgess AF, Gutstein SE |date=2007 |title= Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes |journal= Child Adolesc Ment Health |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=80–6 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x}}</ref> Although core difficulties remain, symptoms often become less severe in later childhood.<ref name=Howlin06>{{cite journal |author= Howlin P |title= Autism spectrum disorders |journal=Psychiatry |volume=5 |issue=9 |date=2006 |pages=320–4 |doi=10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.06.007}}</ref> Few high-quality studies address long-term [[prognosis]]. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=234–47 |date=2004 |title= Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism |author= Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS |doi=10.1002/mrdd.20038 |pmid=15666341 |url=http://waisman.wisc.edu/family/pdf/seltzer_trajectory.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2008-04-17}}</ref> Acquiring language before age six, having [[IQ]] above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR |title= Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |journal= Can J Psychiatry |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=517–25 |date=2003 |pmid=14574827 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/tidmarsh.asp}}</ref> A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care.<ref name=Howlin>{{cite journal |author= Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M |title= Adult outcome for children with autism |journal= J Child Psychol Psychiatry |date=2004 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=212–29 |pmid=14982237 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x}}</ref> A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |year=2005 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=351–60 |title= Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood |author= Billstedt E, Gillberg C, Gillberg C |doi=10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5 |pmid=16119476}}</ref> A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); only 56% had ever been employed, most in volunteer, sheltered or part time work.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |date=2008 |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=739–47 |title= Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders |author= Eaves LC, Ho HH |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x |pmid=17764027}}</ref> Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children.<ref name=Newschaffer/>
==History==
{{See also|Sociological and cultural aspects of autism}}
A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named. The ''[[Table Talk]]'' of [[Martin Luther]] contains a story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Autism|volume=1|issue=1|pages=13–23|date=1997|doi=10.1177/1362361397011004|title=The history of ideas on autism: legends, myths and reality|author=[[Lorna Wing|Wing L]]}}</ref> According to Luther's notetaker [[Johannes Mathesius|Mathesius]], Luther thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh [[demonic possession|possessed by the devil]], and suggested that he be suffocated.<ref>{{cite web|author=Miles M|date=2005|title=Martin Luther and childhood disability in 16th century Germany: what did he write? what did he say?|publisher=Independent Living Institute|url=http://independentliving.org/docs7/miles2005b.html|accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref> [[Victor of Aveyron]], a [[feral child]] caught in 1798, showed several signs of autism; the medical student [[Jean Itard]] treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation.<ref name=Wolff>{{cite journal|journal=Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry|date=2004|volume=13|issue=4|pages=201–8|title=The history of autism|author=Wolff S|doi=10.1007/s00787-004-0363-5|pmid=15365889}}</ref>
The [[New Latin]] word ''autismus'' (English translation ''autism'') was coined by the [[Swiss]] psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of [[schizophrenia]]. He derived it from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''autos'' (αὐτός, meaning ''self''), and used it to mean morbid self-admiration, referring to "autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance."<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kuhn R; tr. Cahn CH|title=Eugen Bleuler's concepts of psychopathology|journal=Hist Psychiatry|volume=15|issue=3|date=2004|pages=361–6|doi=10.1177/0957154X04044603|pmid=15386868}} The quote is a translation of Bleuler's 1910 original.</ref>
[[Image:kanner kl2.jpg|thumb|[[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]]
The word ''autism'' first took its modern sense in 1938 when [[Hans Asperger]] of the [[Vienna General Hospital|Vienna University Hospital]] adopted Bleuler's terminology "autistic psychopaths" in a lecture in German about child psychology.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Wien Klin Wochenschr |year=1938 |volume=51 |pages=1314–7 |title= Das psychisch abnormale Kind |author= [[Hans Asperger|Asperger H]] |language=German}}</ref> Asperger was investigating a form of ASD now known as [[Asperger syndrome]], though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981.<ref name=Wolff/> [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] first used ''autism'' in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities.<ref name=Kanner1943>{{cite journal |author= [[Leo Kanner|Kanner L]] |title= Autistic disturbances of affective contact |journal= Nerv Child |volume=2 |pages=217–50 |date=1943}} {{cite journal |title=Reprint |quotes=no |date=1968 |journal= Acta Paedopsychiatr |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=100–36 |pmid=4880460}}</ref> Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner's first paper on the subject, notably "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness", are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.<ref name=HappeTime/> It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger.<ref name=Lyons>{{cite journal |journal= J Autism Dev Disord |year=2007 |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=2022–3 |title= Asperger (1906–1980) and Kanner (1894–1981), the two pioneers of autism |author= Lyons V, Fitzgerald M |doi=10.1007/s10803-007-0383-3 |pmid=17922179 |url=http://springerlink.com/content/m55051670u35066p/fulltext.html}}</ref>
Kanner's reuse of ''autism'' led to decades of confused terminology like "infantile schizophrenia", and child psychiatry's focus on maternal deprivation during the mid-1900s led to misconceptions of autism as an infant's response to "[[refrigerator mother]]s". Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong, distinguishing it from mental retardation and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders, and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Can J Psychiatry |date=2003 |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=503–5 |title= Modern views of autism |author= Fombonne E |pmid=14574825 |url=http://ww1.cpa-apc.org:8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2003/september/guesteditorial.asp}}</ref> As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions.<ref>{{cite book |chapter= Genetic epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders |author= [[Peter Szatmari|Szatmari P]], Jones MB |pages=157–78 |title= Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders |edition = 2nd ed |editor= Volkmar FR |publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |isbn=0521549574}}</ref> The rise of parent organizations and the [[Social stigma|destigmatization]] of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD, its boundaries, and its treatments.<ref name=Wolff/> The [[Internet]] has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with, and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely.<ref>{{cite news |author=Biever C |title= Web removes social barriers for those with autism |work= New Scientist |issue=2610 |date=2007-06-30}}</ref> [[Sociological and cultural aspects of autism]] have developed: some in the community seek a cure, while others believe that autism is simply another way of being.<ref name=Rajendran/><ref>{{cite news |author= Harmon A |title= How about not 'curing' us, some autistics are pleading |date=2004-12-20 |work= New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/20/health/20autism.html |accessdate=2007-11-07}}</ref>


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 15:58, 29 August 2012

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Autism
Repetitively stacking or lining up objects may indicate autism.[1]
ICD-10 F84.0
ICD-9 299.0
OMIM 209850
DiseasesDB 1142
MedlinePlus 001526
MeSH D001321

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Diagnosis is based on behavior, not cause or mechanism.[2][3] Autism is defined in the DSM-IV-TR as exhibiting at least six symptoms total, including at least two symptoms of qualitative impairment in social interaction, at least one symptom of qualitative impairment in communication, and at least one symptom of restricted and repetitive behavior. Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with parts of objects. Onset must be prior to age three years, with delays or abnormal functioning in either social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play. The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome or childhood disintegrative disorder.[4] ICD-10 uses essentially the same definition.[5]

Several diagnostic instruments are available. Two are commonly used in autism research: the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) is a semistructured parent interview, and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) uses observation and interaction with the child. The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children.[6]

A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child. If warranted, diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists, observing and assessing cognitive, communication, family, and other factors using standardized tools, and taking into account any associated medical conditions. A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider mental retardation, hearing impairment, and a specific language impairment[7] such as Landau-Kleffner syndrome.[8] ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months, although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life: for example, a one-year-old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three-year-old to continue to do so a few years later.[9] In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment, though few cases are handled that quickly in practice.[7] A 2006 U.S. study found the average age of first evaluation by a qualified professional was 48 months and of formal ASD diagnosis was 61 months, reflecting an average 13-month delay, all far above recommendations.[10]

Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed, particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause.[11] Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40% of cases to genetic causes,[12] consensus guidelines in the U.S. and UK are limited to high-resolution chromosome and fragile X testing.[11] As new genetic tests are developed several ethical, legal, and social issues will emerge. Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results, given the complexity of autism's genetics.[13] Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful, but are not routine.[11]

Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases, and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices. The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD, resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms. Conversely, the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis.[14] It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired, partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision, and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes.[15]

The symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood but are occasionally missed. Adults may seek retrospective diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves, to help their employers make adjustments, or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits.[16]

Management

Main article: Autism therapies

The main goals of treatment are to lessen associated deficits and family distress, and to increase quality of life and functional independence. No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills,[17] and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors;[18] claims that intervention by age two to three years is crucial[19] are not substantiated.[20] Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy.[17] Educational interventions have some effectiveness in children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children[21] and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children.[18] The limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.[22]

Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD.[23] More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics.[24] Aside from antipsychotics,[25] there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD.[26] A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have adverse effects, and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.[27][28]

Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available, few are supported by scientific studies.[29][30][31] Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance.[32] Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests.[33] Although most alternative treatments, such as melatonin, have only mild adverse effects,[34] a 2008 study found that autistic boys on casein-free diets have significantly thinner bones,[35] and botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old autistic boy in 2005.[36]

Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. A U.S. study estimated an average cost of $3.2 million in 2003 U.S. dollars for someone born in 2000, with about 10% medical care, 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity.[37] Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems;[38] a 2008 U.S. study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD.[39] After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and estate planning.[31]

Prognosis

There is no cure.[17] Children recover occasionally, sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not; it is not known how often this happens.[18] Most children with autism lack social support, meaningful relationships, future employment opportunities or self-determination.[32] Although core difficulties remain, symptoms often become less severe in later childhood.[20] Few high-quality studies address long-term prognosis. Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills, but a few decline; no study has focused on autism after midlife.[40] Acquiring language before age six, having IQ above 50, and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes; independent living is unlikely with severe autism.[41] A 2004 British study of 68 adults who were diagnosed before 1980 as autistic children with IQ above 50 found that 12% achieved a high level of independence as adults, 10% had some friends and were generally in work but required some support, 19% had some independence but were generally living at home and needed considerable support and supervision in daily living, 46% needed specialist residential provision from facilities specializing in ASD with a high level of support and very limited autonomy, and 12% needed high-level hospital care.[42] A 2005 Swedish study of 78 adults that did not exclude low IQ found worse prognosis; for example, only 4% achieved independence.[43] A 2008 Canadian study of 48 young adults diagnosed with ASD as preschoolers found outcomes ranging through poor (46%), fair (32%), good (17%), and very good (4%); only 56% had ever been employed, most in volunteer, sheltered or part time work.[44] Changes in diagnostic practice and increased availability of effective early intervention make it unclear whether these findings can be generalized to recently diagnosed children.[45]

References

  1. ↑
  2. ↑ London E (2007). "The role of the neurobiologist in redefining the diagnosis of autism". Brain Pathol. 17 (4): 408–11. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3639.2007.00103.x. PMID 17919126.
  3. ↑ Baird G, Cass H, Slonims V (2003). "Diagnosis of autism". BMJ. 327 (7413): 488–93. doi:10.1136/bmj.327.7413.488. PMID 12946972.
  4. ↑ American Psychiatric Association (2000). "Diagnostic criteria for 299.00 Autistic Disorder". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text revision (DSM-IV-TR) ed.). ISBN 0890420254. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  5. ↑ World Health Organization (2006). "F84. Pervasive developmental disorders". International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (10th ed. (ICD-10) ed.). Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  6. ↑
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Dover CJ, Le Couteur A (2007). "How to diagnose autism". Arch Dis Child. 92 (6): 540–5. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.086280. PMID 17515625.
  8. ↑ Mantovani JF (2000). "Autistic regression and Landau-Kleffner syndrome: progress or confusion?". Dev Med Child Neurol. 42 (5): 349–53. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2000.tb00104.x. PMID 10855658.
  9. ↑ Landa RJ (2008). "Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life". Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 4 (3): 138–47. doi:10.1038/ncpneuro0731. PMID 18253102.
  10. ↑ Wiggins LD, Baio J, Rice C (2006). "Examination of the time between first evaluation and first autism spectrum diagnosis in a population-based sample". J Dev Behav Pediatr. 27 (2 Suppl): S79–87. PMID 16685189.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2
  12. ↑ Schaefer GB, Mendelsohn NJ (2008). "Genetics evaluation for the etiologic diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders". Genet Med. 10 (1): 4–12. doi:10.1097/GIM.0b013e31815efdd7. PMID 18197051. Lay summary – Medical News Today (2008-02-07).
  13. ↑ McMahon WM, Baty BJ, Botkin J (2006). "Genetic counseling and ethical issues for autism". Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 142C (1): 52–7. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.30082. PMID 16419100.
  14. ↑ Shattuck PT, Grosse SD (2007). "Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders". Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 13 (2): 129–35. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20143. PMID 17563895.
  15. ↑ Cass H (1998). "Visual impairment and autism: current questions and future research". Autism. 2 (2): 117–38. doi:10.1177/1362361398022002.
  16. ↑ "Diagnosis: how can it benefit me as an adult?". National Autistic Society. 2005. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Myers SM, Johnson CP, Council on Children with Disabilities (2007). "Management of children with autism spectrum disorders". Pediatrics. 120 (5): 1162–82. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2362. PMID 17967921. Lay summary – AAP (2007-10-29).
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Rogers SJ, Vismara LA (2008). "Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism". J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 37 (1): 8–38. doi:10.1080/15374410701817808. PMID 18444052.
  19. ↑ Pettus A (2008). "A spectrum of disorders". Harv Mag. 110 (3): 27–31, 89–91.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Howlin P (2006). "Autism spectrum disorders". Psychiatry. 5 (9): 320–4. doi:10.1053/j.mppsy.2006.06.007.
  21. ↑ Eikeseth S (2008). "Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism". Res Dev Disabil. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003. PMID 18385012.
  22. ↑ Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, Schopler E (2003). "Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism". J Autism Dev Disord. 33 (2): 131–40. doi:10.1023/A:1022931224934. PMID 12757352.
  23. ↑ Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL (2008). "Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents". Harv Rev Psychiatry. 16 (2): 97–112. doi:10.1080/10673220802075852. PMID 18415882.
  24. ↑ Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA (2007). "Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders". J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 17 (3): 348–55. doi:10.1089/cap.2006.17303. PMID 17630868.
  25. ↑ Posey DJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, McDougle CJ (2008). "Antipsychotics in the treatment of autism". J Clin Invest. 118 (1): 6–14. doi:10.1172/JCI32483. PMID 18172517.
  26. ↑ Lack of research on drug treatments:
  27. ↑ Template:Cite paper
  28. ↑ Buitelaar JK (2003). "Why have drug treatments been so disappointing?". Novartis Found Symp. 251: 235–44, discussion 245–9, 281–97. doi:10.1002/0470869380.ch14. PMID 14521196.
  29. ↑
  30. ↑ Lack of support for interventions:
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Aman MG (2005). "Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders". J Clin Psychiatry. 66 (Suppl 10): 38–45. PMID 16401149.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Burgess AF, Gutstein SE (2007). "Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes". Child Adolesc Ment Health. 12 (2): 80–6. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2006.00432.x.
  33. ↑ Stahmer AC, Collings NM, Palinkas LA (2005). "Early intervention practices for children with autism: descriptions from community providers". Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl. 20 (2): 66–79. PMC 1350798. PMID 16467905.
  34. ↑ Angley M, Semple S, Hewton C, Paterson F, McKinnon R (2007). "Children and autism—part 2—management with complementary medicines and dietary interventions" (PDF). Aust Fam Physician. 36 (10): 827–30. PMID 17925903.
  35. ↑ Hediger ML, England LJ, Molloy CA, Yu KF, Manning-Courtney P, Mills JL (2008). "Reduced bone cortical thickness in boys with autism or autism spectrum disorder". J Autism Dev Disord. 38 (5): 848–56. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0453-6. PMID 17879151. Lay summary – NIH News (2008-01-29).
  36. ↑ Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R (2006). "Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003–2005". Pediatrics. 118 (2): e534–6. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-0858. PMID 16882789.
  37. ↑ Ganz ML (2007). "The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 161 (4): 343–9. PMID 17404130. Lay summary – Harvard School of Public Health (2006-04-25).
  38. ↑ Sharpe DL, Baker DL (2007). "Financial issues associated with having a child with autism". J Fam Econ Iss. 28 (2): 247–64. doi:10.1007/s10834-007-9059-6.
  39. ↑ Montes G, Halterman JS (2008). "Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income". Pediatrics. 121 (4): e821–6. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1594. PMID 18381511.
  40. ↑ Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, Abbeduto L, Greenberg JS (2004). "Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism" (PDF). Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 10 (4): 234–47. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20038. PMID 15666341. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  41. ↑ Tidmarsh L, Volkmar FR (2003). "Diagnosis and epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders". Can J Psychiatry. 48 (8): 517–25. PMID 14574827.
  42. ↑ Howlin P, Goode S, Hutton J, Rutter M (2004). "Adult outcome for children with autism". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 45 (2): 212–29. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00215.x. PMID 14982237.
  43. ↑ Billstedt E, Gillberg C, Gillberg C (2005). "Autism after adolescence: population-based 13- to 22-year follow-up study of 120 individuals with autism diagnosed in childhood". J Autism Dev Disord. 35 (3): 351–60. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3302-5. PMID 16119476.
  44. ↑ Eaves LC, Ho HH (2008). "Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders". J Autism Dev Disord. 38 (4): 739–47. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x. PMID 17764027.
  45. ↑

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