Atrial fibrillation overview: Difference between revisions
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==Risk Factors== | ==Risk Factors== | ||
Atrial fibrillation (AF) affects millions of people, and the number increases with increasing age. Men are more likely than women to have the condition. In the United States, AF is more common among Caucasians than African-Americans or Hispanic Americans. | Atrial fibrillation (AF) affects millions of people, and the number increases with increasing age. Men are more likely than women to have the condition. In the United States, AF is more common among Caucasians than African-Americans or Hispanic Americans. | ||
The risk of AF increases with age. This is mostly because the risk for heart disease and other conditions that can cause AF also increases with increasing age. | The risk of AF increases with age. This is mostly because the risk for heart disease and other conditions that can cause AF also increases with increasing age. | ||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
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Atrial fibrillation can be complicated by embolic events including [[stroke]] and systemic embolization. The atrial kick (active filling of the left ventricle by atrial contraction) often contributes importantly to the filling of the left ventricle, and the loss of the atrial kick can be associated with the development of [[congestive heart failure]]. | Atrial fibrillation can be complicated by embolic events including [[stroke]] and systemic embolization. The atrial kick (active filling of the left ventricle by atrial contraction) often contributes importantly to the filling of the left ventricle, and the loss of the atrial kick can be associated with the development of [[congestive heart failure]]. | ||
== Diagnosis == | ==Diagnosis== | ||
=== History and Symptoms === | ===History and Symptoms=== | ||
Atrial fibrillation is often [[asymptomatic]], and is not in itself generally life-threatening, but may result in [[palpitations]], [[fainting]], [[Angina pectoris|chest pain]], or [[congestive heart failure]]. | Atrial fibrillation is often [[asymptomatic]], and is not in itself generally life-threatening, but may result in [[palpitations]], [[fainting]], [[Angina pectoris|chest pain]], or [[congestive heart failure]]. | ||
=== Physical Examination === | ===Physical Examination=== | ||
Atrial fibrillation is often be identified by taking the [[pulse]] and observing that the heartbeats occur at regular intervals. The pulse is classically irregularly irregular. | Atrial fibrillation is often be identified by taking the [[pulse]] and observing that the heartbeats occur at regular intervals. The pulse is classically irregularly irregular. | ||
=== Electrocardiogram === | ===Electrocardiogram=== | ||
The absence of [[P wave]]s on the electrocardiogram with an irregularly irregular atrial rhythm is diagnostic of atrial fibrillation. | The absence of [[P wave]]s on the electrocardiogram with an irregularly irregular atrial rhythm is diagnostic of atrial fibrillation. | ||
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Cardiac [[magnetic resonance imaging]] may be used to assess the structure and the function of the [[atria]] in patients with [[atrial fibrillation]]. It is also useful in the evaluation of atrial [[thrombi]] in persons with atrial fibrillation. | Cardiac [[magnetic resonance imaging]] may be used to assess the structure and the function of the [[atria]] in patients with [[atrial fibrillation]]. It is also useful in the evaluation of atrial [[thrombi]] in persons with atrial fibrillation. | ||
===Other Imaging Studies=== | ===Other Imaging Studies=== | ||
Other diagnostic studies include the [[holter monitor]] to assess symptomatic episodes of atrial fibrillation over a 24 hour period, and exercise stress testing to assess a how a patient's [[heart rate]] responds to exertion. The main benefits to performing an [[exercise stress test]] are to reproduce exercise induced atrial fibrillation, and to exclude [[ischemia]] before initiating treatment with type 1C [[antiarrhythmic]] medications. | Other diagnostic studies include the [[holter monitor]] to assess symptomatic episodes of atrial fibrillation over a 24 hour period, and exercise stress testing to assess a how a patient's [[heart rate]] responds to exertion. The main benefits to performing an [[exercise stress test]] are to reproduce exercise induced atrial fibrillation, and to exclude [[ischemia]] before initiating treatment with type 1C [[antiarrhythmic]] medications. | ||
== Treatment == | == Treatment == | ||
Atrial fibrillation may be treated with medications which either slow the heart rate or revert the heart rhythm back to [[normal sinus rhythm]]. Synchronized electrical [[cardioversion]] may also be used to convert AF to a normal heart rhythm. Surgical and catheter-based therapies may also be used to prevent recurrence of AF in certain individuals. People with AF are often given [[anticoagulants]] such as [[warfarin]] to reduce the risk of stroke. | Atrial fibrillation may be treated with medications which either slow the heart rate or revert the heart rhythm back to [[normal sinus rhythm]]. Synchronized electrical [[cardioversion]] may also be used to convert AF to a normal heart rhythm. Surgical and catheter-based therapies may also be used to prevent recurrence of AF in certain individuals. People with AF are often given [[anticoagulants]] such as [[warfarin]] to reduce the risk of stroke. | ||
Among patients in whom there is normal atrioventricular conduction, fibrillatory or irregular impulses that vary in timing, amplitude and shape are present which are in turn associated with the rapid irregular ventricular response that characterizes atrial fibrillation. <ref>Bellet S. Clinical Disorders of the Heart Beat. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea& Febiger, 1971</ref><ref name="pmid16908781">{{cite journal |author=Fuster V, Rydén LE, Cannom DS, ''et al'' |title=ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society |journal=Circulation |volume=114 |issue=7 |pages=e257–354 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16908781 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.177292 |url=}}</ref> | Among patients in whom there is normal atrioventricular conduction, fibrillatory or irregular impulses that vary in timing, amplitude and shape are present which are in turn associated with the rapid irregular ventricular response that characterizes atrial fibrillation. <ref>Bellet S. Clinical Disorders of the Heart Beat. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea& Febiger, 1971</ref><ref name="pmid16908781">{{cite journal |author=Fuster V, Rydén LE, Cannom DS, ''et al'' |title=ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society |journal=Circulation |volume=114 |issue=7 |pages=e257–354 |year=2006 |month=August |pmid=16908781 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.177292 |url=}}</ref> | ||
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Cardioversion is a [[medical procedure]] by which an abnormally fast [[heart rate]] ([[tachycardia]]) or [[cardiac arrhythmia]] is converted to a [[Electrical conduction system of the heart|normal rhythm]], using [[electricity]] or [[drugs]]. <ref name='Shea2002'>{{cite journal|title=Cardioversion|journal= Circulation|year=2002|first=Julie B.|last=Shea|coauthors=William H. Maisel|volume=106|issue=22|pages=e176–8|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000040586.24302.B9|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/22/e176|format=|accessdate=|pmid=12451016 }}</ref> | Cardioversion is a [[medical procedure]] by which an abnormally fast [[heart rate]] ([[tachycardia]]) or [[cardiac arrhythmia]] is converted to a [[Electrical conduction system of the heart|normal rhythm]], using [[electricity]] or [[drugs]]. <ref name='Shea2002'>{{cite journal|title=Cardioversion|journal= Circulation|year=2002|first=Julie B.|last=Shea|coauthors=William H. Maisel|volume=106|issue=22|pages=e176–8|doi=10.1161/01.CIR.0000040586.24302.B9|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/106/22/e176|format=|accessdate=|pmid=12451016 }}</ref> | ||
===Anticoagulation=== | ===Anticoagulation=== | ||
Oral | Oral anticoagulation is a mainstay of atrial fibrillation management. For both primary and secondary prevention of stroke, there is a 61% relative risks reduction in the incidence of all cause stroke (both ischemic and hemorrhagic) associated with adjusted-dose oral anticoagulation.<ref name="pmid">{{cite journal |author=Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA |title=Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=131 |issue=7 |pages=492–501 |year=1999 |month=October |pmid= |doi= |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10507957}}</ref> | ||
===Rate Control=== | ===Rate Control=== | ||
[[Atrial fibrillation]] with rapid ventricular rate is a common finding in many hospitalized patients. The ventricular rate may be increased | [[Atrial fibrillation]] with rapid ventricular rate is a common finding in many hospitalized patients. The ventricular rate may be increased up to 150-170. It is essential to bring the ventricular rate down to less than 100 because a rapid ventricular response can cause hemodynamic instabilities and [[tachycardia]] mediated [[cardiomyopathy|cardiomyopathies]] ([[heart failure]]). AF can cause disabling and annoying symptoms. [[Palpitations]], [[Angina pectoris|angina]], lassitude (weariness), and decreased exercise tolerance are related to [[rapid heart rate]] and inefficient [[cardiac output]] caused by AF. This can significantly increase mortality and morbidity, which can be prevented by early and adequate treatment of the AF. | ||
===Rhythm Control=== | ===Rhythm Control=== | ||
Prophylactic [[antiarrhythmic drug therapy]] may be required to maintain [[sinus rhythm]], reduce frequency of symptoms, improve hemodynamic function and exercise capacity and prevent [[tachycardia|tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy]] secondary to [[atrial fibrillation]]. In patients with [[heart failure]], pharmacological maintenance of sinus rhythm has shown to reduce morbidity.<ref name="pmid10486417">Torp-Pedersen C, Møller M, Bloch-Thomsen PE, Køber L, Sandøe E, Egstrup K et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10486417 Dofetilide in patients with congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. Danish Investigations of Arrhythmia and Mortality on Dofetilide Study Group.] ''N Engl J Med'' 341 (12):857-65. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199909163411201 DOI:10.1056/NEJM199909163411201] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10486417 10486417]</ref><ref name="pmid9843465">Deedwania PC, Singh BN, Ellenbogen K, Fisher S, Fletcher R, Singh SN (1998) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9843465 Spontaneous conversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm by amiodarone in patients with heart failure and atrial fibrillation: observations from the veterans affairs congestive heart failure survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy (CHF-STAT). The Department of Veterans Affairs CHF-STAT Investigators.] ''Circulation'' 98 (23):2574-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/9843465 9843465]</ref> | Prophylactic [[antiarrhythmic drug therapy]] may be required to maintain [[sinus rhythm]], reduce frequency of symptoms, improve hemodynamic function and exercise capacity and prevent [[tachycardia|tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy]] secondary to [[atrial fibrillation]]. In patients with [[heart failure]], pharmacological maintenance of sinus rhythm has shown to reduce morbidity.<ref name="pmid10486417">Torp-Pedersen C, Møller M, Bloch-Thomsen PE, Køber L, Sandøe E, Egstrup K et al. (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10486417 Dofetilide in patients with congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. Danish Investigations of Arrhythmia and Mortality on Dofetilide Study Group.] ''N Engl J Med'' 341 (12):857-65. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199909163411201 DOI:10.1056/NEJM199909163411201] PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/10486417 10486417]</ref><ref name="pmid9843465">Deedwania PC, Singh BN, Ellenbogen K, Fisher S, Fletcher R, Singh SN (1998) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9843465 Spontaneous conversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm by amiodarone in patients with heart failure and atrial fibrillation: observations from the veterans affairs congestive heart failure survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy (CHF-STAT). The Department of Veterans Affairs CHF-STAT Investigators.] ''Circulation'' 98 (23):2574-9. PMID: [http://pubmed.gov/9843465 9843465]</ref> | ||
===Surgery=== | ===Surgery=== | ||
====Radiofrequency Ablation==== | ====Radiofrequency Ablation==== | ||
[[Ablation]] is a newer technique and has shown some promise for cases of recurrent AF that are unresponsive to conventional treatments. [[Radiofrequency ablation]] (RFA) uses radiofrequency energy to destroy abnormal electrical pathways in heart tissue. The energy emitting probe ([[electrode]]) is placed into the heart through a [[catheter]] inserted into veins in the groin or neck. Electrodes that can detect electrical activity from inside the heart are also inserted, and the electrophysiologist uses these to map an area of the heart in order to locate the abnormal electrical activity before eliminating the responsible tissue. | [[Ablation]] is a newer technique and has shown some promise for cases of recurrent AF that are unresponsive to conventional treatments. [[Radiofrequency ablation]] (RFA) uses radiofrequency energy to destroy abnormal electrical pathways in heart tissue. The energy emitting probe ([[electrode]]) is placed into the heart through a [[catheter]] inserted into veins in the groin or neck. Electrodes that can detect electrical activity from inside the heart are also inserted, and the electrophysiologist uses these to map an area of the heart in order to locate the abnormal electrical activity before eliminating the responsible tissue. | ||
====Maze Procedure==== | ====Maze Procedure==== | ||
A surgical option for some patients with atrial fibrillation is the maze procedure. In this procedure, a series of incisions in a cross like pattern are made on the atria, which blocks the abnormal atrial circuits, hence eliminating the atrial fibrillation. A number of improvements have been made to this surgical procedure since it was first invented. | A surgical option for some patients with atrial fibrillation is the maze procedure. In this procedure, a series of incisions in a cross like pattern are made on the atria, which blocks the abnormal atrial circuits, hence eliminating the atrial fibrillation. A number of improvements have been made to this surgical procedure since it was first invented. | ||
===Secondary Prevention=== | ===Secondary Prevention=== | ||
In patients with [[paroxysmal atrial fibrillation]], or after conversion of persistent AF, [[dronedarone]] is a medication that may be used to decrease the need for hospitalization, and can be started as an outpatient therapy. It | In patients with [[paroxysmal atrial fibrillation]], or after conversion of persistent AF, [[dronedarone]] is a medication that may be used to decrease the need for hospitalization, and can be started as an outpatient therapy. It cannot be given in patients with class IV heart failure, decompensated [[heart failure]], or depressed left ventricular function. A permanent pacemaker is not recommended in patients who do not have another indication for placement of a [[pacemaker]]. | ||
== References == | == References == | ||
{{reflist|2}} | {{reflist|2}} | ||
[[Category:Crowdiagnosis]] | |||
[[Category:Cardiology]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date]] | |||
[[Category:Up-To-Date cardiology]] | |||
[[Category:Arrhythmia]] | |||
[[Category:Electrophysiology]] | [[Category:Electrophysiology]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Disease]] | ||
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Revision as of 15:30, 30 August 2013
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Sinus rhythm  |
Atrial fibrillation  |
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Atrial Fibrillation Microchapters | |
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Special Groups | |
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Diagnosis | |
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Treatment | |
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Cardioversion | |
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Anticoagulation | |
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Surgery | |
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Case Studies | |
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Atrial fibrillation overview On the Web | |
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Directions to Hospitals Treating Atrial fibrillation overview | |
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Risk calculators and risk factors for Atrial fibrillation overview | |
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Cafer Zorkun, M.D., Ph.D. [2]
Overview
Atrial fibrillation (AF or afib) is a cardiac arrhythmia (abnormal heart rhythm) that involves the two upper chambers (atria) of the heart. Atrial fibrillation is an irregularly irregular heart beat due to chaotic firing of the impulses in the atrium. In this rhythm, the atrium is stimulated chaotically by a wide number of ectopic foci of electrical activity.
Classification
Although several clinical classification plans and protocols have been proposed, none of them fully account for all aspects of atrial fibrillation. The American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology have proposed a classification system based on simplicity and clinical relevance.[1] This classification system contains four main categories which are: first detected or diagnosed, paroxysmal, persistent, and permanent atrial fibrillation.
Pathophysiology
In atrial fibrillation, the normal electrical impulses that are generated by the sinoatrial node are overwhelmed by disorganized electrical impulses that originate in the atria and pulmonary veins, leading to conduction of irregular impulses to the ventricles. This results into an irregular heartbeat which may occur in episodes lasting from minutes to weeks or continuously for many years.
Causes
The most common cause of atrial fibrillation is atrial dilation associated with hypertension. Approximately 1/3 of patients have familial atrial fibrillation which is due to an underlying genetic disorder. Given the number of patients who undergo coronary artery bypass grafting in the developed world, this is an increasing underlying cause of atrial fibrillation. Other general causes include: the advancing age of the population, the hemodynamic stress of heart failure and valvular heart disease, myocardial ischemia, a variety of inflammatory disorders, pulmonary diseases, alcohol and drug abuse, and endocrine disorders.
Differentiating Atrial Fibrillation from other Diseases
Atrial fibrillation must be distinguished from other common atrial arrhythmias which include atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia, atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia, and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.
Epidemiology and Demographics
AF is the most common arrhythmia. The risk of atrial fibrillation increases with age, and 8% of people over the age of 80 have AF. It accounts for 1/3 of hospital admissions for cardiac rhythm disturbances,[1] and the rate of admissions for AF has risen in recent years.[2]
Risk Factors
Atrial fibrillation (AF) affects millions of people, and the number increases with increasing age. Men are more likely than women to have the condition. In the United States, AF is more common among Caucasians than African-Americans or Hispanic Americans. The risk of AF increases with age. This is mostly because the risk for heart disease and other conditions that can cause AF also increases with increasing age.
Screening
Screening for atrial fibrillation is generally not performed, although a study of routine pulse checks or electrocardiograms during routine office visits found that the annual rate of detection of atrial fibrillation in elderly patients improved from 1.04% to 1.63%.[3]
Natural History, Complications and Prognosis
Atrial fibrillation can be complicated by embolic events including stroke and systemic embolization. The atrial kick (active filling of the left ventricle by atrial contraction) often contributes importantly to the filling of the left ventricle, and the loss of the atrial kick can be associated with the development of congestive heart failure.
Diagnosis
History and Symptoms
Atrial fibrillation is often asymptomatic, and is not in itself generally life-threatening, but may result in palpitations, fainting, chest pain, or congestive heart failure.
Physical Examination
Atrial fibrillation is often be identified by taking the pulse and observing that the heartbeats occur at regular intervals. The pulse is classically irregularly irregular.
Electrocardiogram
The absence of P waves on the electrocardiogram with an irregularly irregular atrial rhythm is diagnostic of atrial fibrillation.
Chest X-Ray
A chest X-ray is useful in the setting of atrial fibrillation only when the cause is suspected to be pulmonary in origin.
Echocardiogram
Performing an echocardiogram in the setting of atrial fibrillation is essential to evaluate certain pathologies of the heart such as valvular heart disease, hypertrophy, presence of thrombus, presence of pericardial disease; some parameters of cardiac functionality including the size and ejection fraction of the left ventricle.
Cardiac MRI
Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging may be used to assess the structure and the function of the atria in patients with atrial fibrillation. It is also useful in the evaluation of atrial thrombi in persons with atrial fibrillation.
Other Imaging Studies
Other diagnostic studies include the holter monitor to assess symptomatic episodes of atrial fibrillation over a 24 hour period, and exercise stress testing to assess a how a patient's heart rate responds to exertion. The main benefits to performing an exercise stress test are to reproduce exercise induced atrial fibrillation, and to exclude ischemia before initiating treatment with type 1C antiarrhythmic medications.
Treatment
Atrial fibrillation may be treated with medications which either slow the heart rate or revert the heart rhythm back to normal sinus rhythm. Synchronized electrical cardioversion may also be used to convert AF to a normal heart rhythm. Surgical and catheter-based therapies may also be used to prevent recurrence of AF in certain individuals. People with AF are often given anticoagulants such as warfarin to reduce the risk of stroke.
Among patients in whom there is normal atrioventricular conduction, fibrillatory or irregular impulses that vary in timing, amplitude and shape are present which are in turn associated with the rapid irregular ventricular response that characterizes atrial fibrillation. [4][1]
Cardioversion
Cardioversion is a medical procedure by which an abnormally fast heart rate (tachycardia) or cardiac arrhythmia is converted to a normal rhythm, using electricity or drugs. [5]
Anticoagulation
Oral anticoagulation is a mainstay of atrial fibrillation management. For both primary and secondary prevention of stroke, there is a 61% relative risks reduction in the incidence of all cause stroke (both ischemic and hemorrhagic) associated with adjusted-dose oral anticoagulation.[6]
Rate Control
Atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular rate is a common finding in many hospitalized patients. The ventricular rate may be increased up to 150-170. It is essential to bring the ventricular rate down to less than 100 because a rapid ventricular response can cause hemodynamic instabilities and tachycardia mediated cardiomyopathies (heart failure). AF can cause disabling and annoying symptoms. Palpitations, angina, lassitude (weariness), and decreased exercise tolerance are related to rapid heart rate and inefficient cardiac output caused by AF. This can significantly increase mortality and morbidity, which can be prevented by early and adequate treatment of the AF.
Rhythm Control
Prophylactic antiarrhythmic drug therapy may be required to maintain sinus rhythm, reduce frequency of symptoms, improve hemodynamic function and exercise capacity and prevent tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy secondary to atrial fibrillation. In patients with heart failure, pharmacological maintenance of sinus rhythm has shown to reduce morbidity.[7][8]
Surgery
Radiofrequency Ablation
Ablation is a newer technique and has shown some promise for cases of recurrent AF that are unresponsive to conventional treatments. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) uses radiofrequency energy to destroy abnormal electrical pathways in heart tissue. The energy emitting probe (electrode) is placed into the heart through a catheter inserted into veins in the groin or neck. Electrodes that can detect electrical activity from inside the heart are also inserted, and the electrophysiologist uses these to map an area of the heart in order to locate the abnormal electrical activity before eliminating the responsible tissue.
Maze Procedure
A surgical option for some patients with atrial fibrillation is the maze procedure. In this procedure, a series of incisions in a cross like pattern are made on the atria, which blocks the abnormal atrial circuits, hence eliminating the atrial fibrillation. A number of improvements have been made to this surgical procedure since it was first invented.
Secondary Prevention
In patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, or after conversion of persistent AF, dronedarone is a medication that may be used to decrease the need for hospitalization, and can be started as an outpatient therapy. It cannot be given in patients with class IV heart failure, decompensated heart failure, or depressed left ventricular function. A permanent pacemaker is not recommended in patients who do not have another indication for placement of a pacemaker.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Fuster V, Rydén LE, Cannom DS; et al. (2006). "ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2001 Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation): developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society". Circulation. 114 (7): e257–354. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.177292. PMID 16908781.
- ↑ Friberg J, Buch P, Scharling H, Gadsbphioll N, Jensen GB. (2003). "Rising rates of hospital admissions for atrial fibrillation". Epidemiology. 14 (6): 666–72. doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000091649.26364.c0. PMID 14569181.
- ↑ Fitzmaurice DA, Hobbs FD, Jowett S; et al. (2007). "Screening versus routine practice in detection of atrial fibrillation in patients aged 65 or over: cluster randomized controlled trial". doi:10.1136/bmj.39280.660567.55. PMID 17673732.
- ↑ Bellet S. Clinical Disorders of the Heart Beat. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lea& Febiger, 1971
- ↑ Shea, Julie B. (2002). "Cardioversion". Circulation. 106 (22): e176–8. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000040586.24302.B9. PMID 12451016. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA (1999). "Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis". Ann. Intern. Med. 131 (7): 492–501. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Torp-Pedersen C, Møller M, Bloch-Thomsen PE, Køber L, Sandøe E, Egstrup K et al. (1999) Dofetilide in patients with congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. Danish Investigations of Arrhythmia and Mortality on Dofetilide Study Group. N Engl J Med 341 (12):857-65. DOI:10.1056/NEJM199909163411201 PMID: 10486417
- ↑ Deedwania PC, Singh BN, Ellenbogen K, Fisher S, Fletcher R, Singh SN (1998) Spontaneous conversion and maintenance of sinus rhythm by amiodarone in patients with heart failure and atrial fibrillation: observations from the veterans affairs congestive heart failure survival trial of antiarrhythmic therapy (CHF-STAT). The Department of Veterans Affairs CHF-STAT Investigators. Circulation 98 (23):2574-9. PMID: 9843465