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==Overview==
==Overview==
The exact pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma HCC is not fully understood. It is thought that HCC is mediated by either HBV infection, HCV infection, underlying cirrhotic liver disease, inflammation, necrosis and fibrosis. On microscopic histopathological analysis, large polygonal tumours cells with graunular eosinophilic cytoplasm or layered dense collagen bundles are characteristic findings of hepatocellular carcinoma.
The exact pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma HCC is not fully understood. It is thought that HCC is mediated by either HBV infection, HCV infection, underlying cirrhotic liver disease, inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis. On microscopic histopathological analysis, large polygonal tumour cells with granular eosinophilic cytoplasm or layered dense collagen bundles are characteristic findings of hepatocellular carcinoma.


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
Line 24: Line 24:
**[[Aflatoxin]] exposure
**[[Aflatoxin]] exposure


*Chronic exposure of liver insult due to [[HBV infection]],[[HCV infection]],[[aflatoxin]],[[Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease|nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)]] causes damage to the [[Hepatocyte|hepatocytes]] induces a viscious circle of destruction and regeneration of hepatocytes which finally causes the activation of [[Stellate cell|stellate cells]] and hepatocyte senescence which contributes in the development of [[Liver Cirrhosis|cirrhosis]].
*Chronic exposure of liver insult due to [[HBV infection]], [[HCV infection]], [[aflatoxin]], [[Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease|nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)]] causes damage to the [[Hepatocyte|hepatocytes]] induces a vicious circle of destruction and regeneration of hepatocytes which finally causes the activation of [[Stellate cell|stellate cells]] and hepatocyte senescence which contributes in the development of [[Liver Cirrhosis|cirrhosis]].
*As a result of the genomic unstability the initiation of HCC occurs, step wise multiplication of different genetic events that lead to tumor progression and metastases are:
*As a result of the genomic instability the initiation of HCC occurs, stepwise multiplication of different genetic events that lead to tumor progression and metastases are:
**[[Gene]] rearrangements
**[[Gene]] rearrangements
**[[Somatic]] mutations
**[[Somatic]] mutations

Revision as of 16:26, 5 April 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Dildar Hussain, MBBS [2]

Overview

The exact pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma HCC is not fully understood. It is thought that HCC is mediated by either HBV infection, HCV infection, underlying cirrhotic liver disease, inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis. On microscopic histopathological analysis, large polygonal tumour cells with granular eosinophilic cytoplasm or layered dense collagen bundles are characteristic findings of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Pathophysiology

Pathogenesis

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Major molecular events in the pathogenesis of HCC
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Genomic alterations
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Epigenetic modifications
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Growthfactor pathway alterations
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Gene Mutations
 
Gene Amplification
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DNA methylation micro RNA
 
 
 
 
Micro RNA
 
 
 
 
 
LNC RNA
 
 
 
 
 
 
Major Signaling pathways
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
•TERT promoter
•TP53
•CTNNB1
•AXIN1
•AXIN2
•ATM
•RPS6KA3
•JAK1
•IL6R
•IL6ST
•ARID1
•ARID2
 
•CCND1
•FGF19
•CDKNA2A
•CDKNA2B
•AXIN1
•IRF2
•MET
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
GSTP1
•E-cadherin
•CDKNA2
•RASSF1A
•SOCS3
•MIGMT
 
 
 
 
•MiR-155
•MiR-122
•MiR-224
•MiR-21
 
 
 
 
 
•HULC
•HEIH
•Dreh
•MVIH
•HOTAIR
•MDIG
•LINE1
 
 
 
 
 
 
•Wnt/β–catenin
•Tyrosine kinase pathways
EGF
HGF/c-MET
FGF
VEGF
•IGF
•HIF1
•HIF2
•TGF β
•Hedgehog

To review the pathogenesis of HBV infection, click here.

To review the pathogenesis of HCV infection click here.

To review the pathogenesis of hepatic cirrhosis, click here.

Genetics

  • As of now there is no significant manifestation of an ordered cycle of genomic events leading to hepatocarcinogenesis. The pattern of genomic transformations exhibit huge variations often between two different HCCs from a single patient.
  • Hepatocellular carcinoma is most commonly implicated with underlying chronic hepatitis and liver cirrhosis, however differen genes have been associated with the pathogenesis of the HCC, which are further divided into four major groups:[2][24]
    • Genes regulating DNA damage response
    • Genes involved in cell cycle control
    • Genes involved in growth inhibition and apoptosis
    • Genes responsible for cell–cell interaction and signal transduction.
  • Genes involved in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma include:

Associated Conditions

The associated conditions with hepatocellular carcinoma are

Microscopic Pathology

  • On microscopic histopathological analysis, large polygonal tumours cells with graunular eosinophilic cytoplasm or layered dense collagen bundles are characteristic findings of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Gross Pathology

On gross pathology, hepatocellular carcinoma has the following characteristic findings:[55]

  • Nodular or diffusely infiltrative.
  • The nodular type may be unifocal (large mass) or multifocal (when developed as a complication of cirrhosis). Tumor nodules are round to oval, grey or green (if the tumor produces bile), well circumscribed but not encapsulated.
  • In about fifty percent of the cases, the tumors are multifocal where as some authors have suggested it to be around 75 percent.
  • The portal vein is infiltrated by the poorly circumcised diffused type and the hepatic veins are rarely infiltrated.
  • Pale in relation to surrounding liver or green (due to bile secretion)
  • Hepatocelluler carcinoma. The image shows a longitudinal slice taken through the full length of the liver. (Courtesy of Ed Uthman, MD)
    Hepatocelluler carcinoma. The image shows a longitudinal slice taken through the full length of the liver.
    (Courtesy of Ed Uthman, MD)
  • The tumor is at the top, cirrhotic liver at the bottom, and a fibrous reaction in between. Hepatocellular carcinomas can have a variety of gross patterns, including multinodular / multifocal, such as this one. (Courtesy of Ed Uthman, MD)
    The tumor is at the top, cirrhotic liver at the bottom, and a fibrous reaction in between. Hepatocellular carcinomas can have a variety of gross patterns, including multinodular / multifocal, such as this one.
    (Courtesy of Ed Uthman, MD)

Microscopic Pathology

On microscopic histopathological analysis, hepatocellular carcinoma has the following characteristic findings:

  • Large polygonal tumours cells with:
  • Graunular eosinophilic cytoplasm
  • Low NC ratio
  • Layered dense collagen bundles [56]

Videos

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References

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  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Dhanasekaran R, Bandoh S, Roberts LR (2016). "Molecular pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma and impact of therapeutic advances". F1000Res. 5. doi:10.12688/f1000research.6946.1. PMC 4870992. PMID 27239288.
  3. ↑ Killela PJ, Reitman ZJ, Jiao Y, Bettegowda C, Agrawal N, Diaz LA, Friedman AH, Friedman H, Gallia GL, Giovanella BC, Grollman AP, He TC, He Y, Hruban RH, Jallo GI, Mandahl N, Meeker AK, Mertens F, Netto GJ, Rasheed BA, Riggins GJ, Rosenquist TA, Schiffman M, Shih I, Theodorescu D, Torbenson MS, Velculescu VE, Wang TL, Wentzensen N, Wood LD, Zhang M, McLendon RE, Bigner DD, Kinzler KW, Vogelstein B, Papadopoulos N, Yan H (2013). "TERT promoter mutations occur frequently in gliomas and a subset of tumors derived from cells with low rates of self-renewal". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110 (15): 6021–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1303607110. PMC 3625331. PMID 23530248. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  4. ↑ Nault JC, Mallet M, Pilati C, Calderaro J, Bioulac-Sage P, Laurent C, Laurent A, Cherqui D, Balabaud C, Zucman-Rossi J, Zucman Rossi J (2013). "High frequency of telomerase reverse-transcriptase promoter somatic mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma and preneoplastic lesions". Nat Commun. 4: 2218. doi:10.1038/ncomms3218. PMC 3731665. PMID 23887712.
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  11. ↑ Kan Z, Zheng H, Liu X, Li S, Barber TD, Gong Z, Gao H, Hao K, Willard MD, Xu J, Hauptschein R, Rejto PA, Fernandez J, Wang G, Zhang Q, Wang B, Chen R, Wang J, Lee NP, Zhou W, Lin Z, Peng Z, Yi K, Chen S, Li L, Fan X, Yang J, Ye R, Ju J, Wang K, Estrella H, Deng S, Wei P, Qiu M, Wulur IH, Liu J, Ehsani ME, Zhang C, Loboda A, Sung WK, Aggarwal A, Poon RT, Fan ST, Wang J, Hardwick J, Reinhard C, Dai H, Li Y, Luk JM, Mao M (2013). "Whole-genome sequencing identifies recurrent mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma". Genome Res. 23 (9): 1422–33. doi:10.1101/gr.154492.113. PMC 3759719. PMID 23788652.
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  32. ↑ Xie H, Ma H, Zhou D (2013). "Plasma HULC as a promising novel biomarker for the detection of hepatocellular carcinoma". Biomed Res Int. 2013: 136106. doi:10.1155/2013/136106. PMC 3674644. PMID 23762823.
  33. ↑ Yang F, Zhang L, Huo XS, Yuan JH, Xu D, Yuan SX, Zhu N, Zhou WP, Yang GS, Wang YZ, Shang JL, Gao CF, Zhang FR, Wang F, Sun SH (2011). "Long noncoding RNA high expression in hepatocellular carcinoma facilitates tumor growth through enhancer of zeste homolog 2 in humans". Hepatology. 54 (5): 1679–89. doi:10.1002/hep.24563. PMID 21769904.
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  42. ↑ Hoshida Y, Nijman SM, Kobayashi M, Chan JA, Brunet JP, Chiang DY, Villanueva A, Newell P, Ikeda K, Hashimoto M, Watanabe G, Gabriel S, Friedman SL, Kumada H, Llovet JM, Golub TR (2009). "Integrative transcriptome analysis reveals common molecular subclasses of human hepatocellular carcinoma". Cancer Res. 69 (18): 7385–92. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-1089. PMC 3549578. PMID 19723656.
  43. ↑ Tanabe KK, Lemoine A, Finkelstein DM, Kawasaki H, Fujii T, Chung RT, Lauwers GY, Kulu Y, Muzikansky A, Kuruppu D, Lanuti M, Goodwin JM, Azoulay D, Fuchs BC (2008). "Epidermal growth factor gene functional polymorphism and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis". JAMA. 299 (1): 53–60. doi:10.1001/jama.2007.65. PMID 18167406.
  44. ↑ Kaposi-Novak P, Lee JS, Gòmez-Quiroz L, Coulouarn C, Factor VM, Thorgeirsson SS (2006). "Met-regulated expression signature defines a subset of human hepatocellular carcinomas with poor prognosis and aggressive phenotype". J. Clin. Invest. 116 (6): 1582–95. doi:10.1172/JCI27236. PMC 1462944. PMID 16710476.
  45. ↑ Llovet JM, Peña CE, Lathia CD, Shan M, Meinhardt G, Bruix J (2012). "Plasma biomarkers as predictors of outcome in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma". Clin. Cancer Res. 18 (8): 2290–300. doi:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-2175. PMID 22374331.
  46. ↑ French DM, Lin BC, Wang M, Adams C, Shek T, Hötzel K, Bolon B, Ferrando R, Blackmore C, Schroeder K, Rodriguez LA, Hristopoulos M, Venook R, Ashkenazi A, Desnoyers LR (2012). "Targeting FGFR4 inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma in preclinical mouse models". PLoS ONE. 7 (5): e36713. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036713. PMC 3352934. PMID 22615798.
  47. ↑ Desnoyers LR, Pai R, Ferrando RE, Hötzel K, Le T, Ross J, Carano R, D'Souza A, Qing J, Mohtashemi I, Ashkenazi A, French DM (2008). "Targeting FGF19 inhibits tumor growth in colon cancer xenograft and FGF19 transgenic hepatocellular carcinoma models". Oncogene. 27 (1): 85–97. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1210623. PMID 17599042.
  48. ↑ Yoshiji H, Kuriyama S, Noguchi R, Yoshii J, Ikenaka Y, Yanase K, Namisaki T, Kitade M, Uemura M, Masaki T, Fukui H (2005). "Angiopoietin 2 displays a vascular endothelial growth factor dependent synergistic effect in hepatocellular carcinoma development in mice". Gut. 54 (12): 1768–75. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.067900. PMC 1774778. PMID 16033879.
  49. ↑ Park YN, Kim YB, Yang KM, Park C (2000). "Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and angiogenesis in the early stage of multistep hepatocarcinogenesis". Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 124 (7): 1061–5. doi:10.1043/0003-9985(2000)124<1061:IEOVEG>2.0.CO;2. PMID 10888784.
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  55. ↑ Reynolds AR, Furlan A, Fetzer DT, Sasatomi E, Borhani AA, Heller MT, Tublin ME (2015). "Infiltrative hepatocellular carcinoma: what radiologists need to know". Radiographics. 35 (2): 371–86. doi:10.1148/rg.352140114. PMID 25763723.
  56. ↑ "Hepatocellular carcinoma".


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