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==Overview==
==Overview==
Findings in physical examination of patients with epidural hematoma may vary depend on the site of [[hematoma]]. In patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma various [[focal neurologic signs]] may be seen depend on the site of [[hematoma]]. Physical examination of patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma is usually remarkable for [[loss of consciousness]], unilateral [[Deep tendon reflex|diminished deep tendon reflexes]], unilateral fixed [[mydriasis]] and abnormal [[pupillary reflex]], down and out positioned eyes, loss of vision in [[contralateral]] side of [[hematoma]] and abnormal [[Vertical gaze center|vertical gaze]], unilaterally muscle weakness and unilateral [[sensory loss]].
Findings in physical examination of patients with epidural hematoma may vary depend on the site and size of the [[hematoma]]. In patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma various [[focal neurologic signs]] may be seen depend on the site of [[hematoma]]. Physical examination of patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma is usually remarkable for [[loss of consciousness]], unilateral [[Deep tendon reflex|diminished deep tendon reflexes]], unilateral fixed [[mydriasis]] and abnormal [[pupillary reflex]], down and out positioned eyes, loss of vision in [[contralateral]] side of [[hematoma]] and abnormal [[Vertical gaze center|vertical gaze]], unilaterally muscle weakness and unilateral [[sensory loss]].


[[Glasgow coma scale]] in most patients with epidural hematoma is reduced. In patients with [[brain herniation]] due to the epidural hematoma [[respiratory arrest]] and [[Cushing's triad]](hypertension, [[bradycardia]], and irregular [[respiration]]) may be seen. Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include [[stiffness]] and [[tenderness]].
[[Glasgow coma scale]] in most patients with epidural hematoma is reduced. In patients with [[brain herniation]] due to the epidural hematoma [[respiratory arrest]] and [[Cushing's triad]](hypertension, [[bradycardia]], and irregular [[respiration]]) may be seen. Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include [[stiffness]] and [[tenderness]].
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*Findings in physical examination of patients with epidural hematoma may vary depend on the site of [[hematoma]].
*Findings in physical examination of patients with epidural hematoma may vary depend on the site of [[hematoma]].
*In patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma various [[focal neurologic signs]] may be seen depend on the site of [[hematoma]].
*In patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma various [[focal neurologic signs]] may be seen depend on the site of [[hematoma]].
*Physical examination of patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma is usually remarkable for [[loss of consciousness]], unilateral [[Deep tendon reflex|diminished deep tendon reflexes]], unilateral fixed [[mydriasis]] and abnormal [[pupillary reflex]], down and out positioned eyes, loss of vision in [[contralateral]] side of [[hematoma]] and abnormal [[Vertical gaze center|vertical gaze]], unilaterally muscle weakness and unilateral [[sensory loss]].
*Physical examination of patients with [[cranial]] epidural hematoma is usually remarkable for [[loss of consciousness]], unilateral [[Deep tendon reflex|diminished deep tendon reflexes]], unilateral fixed [[mydriasis]] and abnormal [[pupillary reflex]], down and out positioned eyes, loss of vision in [[contralateral]] side of [[hematoma]] and abnormal [[Vertical gaze center|vertical gaze]], unilaterally muscle weakness and unilateral [[sensory loss]].<ref name="pmid27644085">{{cite journal| author=Rangwala SD, Birk DM, Tobin MK, Hahn YS, Nikas DC| title=Spontaneous Resolution of Spinal Epidural Hematoma Resulting from Domestic Child Abuse: Case Report. | journal=Pediatr Neurosurg | year= 2017 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 51-54 | pmid=27644085 | doi=10.1159/000448737 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27644085  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27088028">{{cite journal| author=Aycan A, Ozdemir S, Arslan H, Gonullu E, Bozkına C| title=Idiopathic Thoracic Spontaneous Spinal Epidural Hematoma. | journal=Case Rep Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 2016 | issue=  | pages= 5430708 | pmid=27088028 | doi=10.1155/2016/5430708 | pmc=4819082 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27088028  }} </ref>
*[[Glasgow coma scale]] in most patients with epidural hematoma is reduced.
*[[Glasgow coma scale]] in most patients with epidural hematoma is reduced.<ref name="pmid27857907">{{cite journal| author=Jeong YH, Oh JW, Cho S, Korean Trauma Data Bank System Committee| title=Clinical Outcome of Acute Epidural Hematoma in Korea: Preliminary Report of 285 Cases Registered in the Korean Trauma Data Bank System. | journal=Korean J Neurotrauma | year= 2016 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 47-54 | pmid=27857907 | doi=10.13004/kjnt.2016.12.2.47 | pmc=5110918 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27857907  }} </ref>
 
*In patients with [[brain herniation]] due to the epidural hematoma [[respiratory arrest]] and [[Cushing's triad]](hypertension, [[bradycardia]], and irregular [[respiration]]) may be seen.<ref name="pmid28966825">{{cite journal| author=Ben-Israel D, Isaacs AM, Morrish W, Gallagher NC| title=Acute vertex epidural hematoma. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 219 | pmid=28966825 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_218_17 | pmc=5609442 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28966825  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26720317">{{cite journal| author=Allen KA| title=Pathophysiology and Treatment of Severe Traumatic Brain Injuries in Children. | journal=J Neurosci Nurs | year= 2016 | volume= 48 | issue= 1 | pages= 15-27; quiz E1 | pmid=26720317 | doi=10.1097/JNN.0000000000000176 | pmc=4698894 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26720317  }} </ref>
*In patients with [[brain herniation]] due to the epidural hematoma [[respiratory arrest]] and [[Cushing's triad]](hypertension, [[bradycardia]], and irregular [[respiration]]) may be seen.
*Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include [[stiffness]] and [[tenderness]].<ref name="pmid28868194">{{cite journal| author=Aristedis R, Dimitrios B| title=Spinal epidural hematoma mimicking subarachnoid hemorrhage: A case study. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 182 | pmid=28868194 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_197_17 | pmc=5569401 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28868194  }} </ref>
*Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include [[stiffness]] and [[tenderness]].


===Appearance of the Patient===
===Appearance of the Patient===
*Patients with epidural hematoma usually appear ill and [[Confusion|confused]] and may have sever pain.  
*Patients with epidural hematoma usually appear ill and [[Confusion|confused]] and may have sever pain.<ref name="pmid22325415">{{cite journal| author=Scheibl A, Calderón EM, Borau MJ, Prieto RM, González PF, Galiana GG| title=Epidural hematoma. | journal=J Pediatr Surg | year= 2012 | volume= 47 | issue= 2 | pages= e19-21 | pmid=22325415 | doi=10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.10.078 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22325415  }} </ref>


===Vital Signs===
===Vital Signs===


*[[Bradycardia]] with regular pulse may be seen.
*[[Bradycardia]] with regular pulse may be seen.<ref name="pmid28966825">{{cite journal| author=Ben-Israel D, Isaacs AM, Morrish W, Gallagher NC| title=Acute vertex epidural hematoma. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 219 | pmid=28966825 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_218_17 | pmc=5609442 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28966825  }} </ref>
*[[Tachypnea]] and irregular [[respiration]] may be present.
*[[Tachypnea]] and irregular [[respiration]] may be present.<ref name="pmid28966825">{{cite journal| author=Ben-Israel D, Isaacs AM, Morrish W, Gallagher NC| title=Acute vertex epidural hematoma. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 219 | pmid=28966825 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_218_17 | pmc=5609442 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28966825  }} </ref>
*High blood pressure with normal pulses pressure may be seen.
*High blood pressure with normal pulses pressure may be seen.<ref name="pmid28966825">{{cite journal| author=Ben-Israel D, Isaacs AM, Morrish W, Gallagher NC| title=Acute vertex epidural hematoma. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 219 | pmid=28966825 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_218_17 | pmc=5609442 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28966825  }} </ref>


===Skin===
===Skin===
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===HEENT===
===HEENT===
Findings in HEENT examination of patients with epidural hematoma may include:
Findings in HEENT examination of patients with epidural hematoma may include:<ref name="pmid27644085">{{cite journal| author=Rangwala SD, Birk DM, Tobin MK, Hahn YS, Nikas DC| title=Spontaneous Resolution of Spinal Epidural Hematoma Resulting from Domestic Child Abuse: Case Report. | journal=Pediatr Neurosurg | year= 2017 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 51-54 | pmid=27644085 | doi=10.1159/000448737 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27644085  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25136243">{{cite journal| author=Diyora B, Kukreja S, Nayak N, Kamble H, Sharma A| title=Complete third nerve palsy: Only presenting sign of extradural hematoma in an awake patient. | journal=Oman J Ophthalmol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-4 | pmid=25136243 | doi=10.4103/0974-620X.137177 | pmc=4134542 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25136243  }} </ref>


* Evidence of [[trauma]]
* Evidence of [[trauma]]
* Icteric sclera
* [[Nystagmus]]
* Abnormal extra-[[ocular]] eye movements
* Abnormal extra-[[ocular]] eye movements
*Non-reactive [[pupils]] to light and to [[Accommodation (eye)|accommodation]]
* Non-reactive [[pupils]] to light and to [[Accommodation (eye)|accommodation]]
* Hearing acuity may be reduced
* Hearing acuity may be reduced
*[[Weber test]] may be abnormal
* Tenderness upon palpation of the scalp
* Tenderness upon palpation of the scalp
* Facial tenderness
* Facial tenderness


===Neck===
===Neck===
* Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include:
* Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include:<ref name="pmid28868194">{{cite journal| author=Aristedis R, Dimitrios B| title=Spinal epidural hematoma mimicking subarachnoid hemorrhage: A case study. | journal=Surg Neurol Int | year= 2017 | volume= 8 | issue=  | pages= 182 | pmid=28868194 | doi=10.4103/sni.sni_197_17 | pmc=5569401 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28868194  }} </ref>
* [[Stiffness]]
* [[Stiffness]]
* [[Tenderness]]
* [[Tenderness]]
===Heart===
===Heart===
* Patients with epidural hematoma may have [[tachycardia]] or [[bradycardia]].
* Patients with epidural hematoma may have [[tachycardia]] or [[bradycardia]].<ref name="pmid26438459">{{cite journal| author=Stevens RD, Shoykhet M, Cadena R| title=Emergency Neurological Life Support: Intracranial Hypertension and Herniation. | journal=Neurocrit Care | year= 2015 | volume= 23 Suppl 2 | issue=  | pages= S76-82 | pmid=26438459 | doi=10.1007/s12028-015-0168-z | pmc=4791176 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26438459  }} </ref>
===Abdomen===
===Abdomen===
* Abdominal examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.
* Abdominal examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.
===Back===
===Back===
*In patients with spinal epidural hematoma point tenderness over the [[vertebral column]] may be present.
*In patients with spinal epidural hematoma point tenderness over the [[vertebral column]] may be present.<ref name="pmid29095302">{{cite journal| author=Xian H, Xu LW, Li CH, Hao JM, Wan WX, Feng GD et al.| title=Spontaneous spinal epidural hematomas: One case report and rehabilitation outcome. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2017 | volume= 96 | issue= 44 | pages= e8473 | pmid=29095302 | doi=10.1097/MD.0000000000008473 | pmc=5682821 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29095302  }} </ref>
 
===Genitourinary===
===Genitourinary===
* [[Genitourinary]] examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.
* [[Genitourinary]] examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.
===Neuromuscular===
===Neuromuscular===
* [[Neuromuscular]] examination of patients with epidural hematoma may be remarkable for:
*[[Neuromuscular]] examination of patients with epidural hematoma may be remarkable for:<ref name="pmid27644085">{{cite journal| author=Rangwala SD, Birk DM, Tobin MK, Hahn YS, Nikas DC| title=Spontaneous Resolution of Spinal Epidural Hematoma Resulting from Domestic Child Abuse: Case Report. | journal=Pediatr Neurosurg | year= 2017 | volume= 52 | issue= 1 | pages= 51-54 | pmid=27644085 | doi=10.1159/000448737 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27644085  }} </ref><ref name="pmid25136243">{{cite journal| author=Diyora B, Kukreja S, Nayak N, Kamble H, Sharma A| title=Complete third nerve palsy: Only presenting sign of extradural hematoma in an awake patient. | journal=Oman J Ophthalmol | year= 2014 | volume= 7 | issue= 2 | pages= 103-4 | pmid=25136243 | doi=10.4103/0974-620X.137177 | pmc=4134542 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25136243  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27857907">{{cite journal| author=Jeong YH, Oh JW, Cho S, Korean Trauma Data Bank System Committee| title=Clinical Outcome of Acute Epidural Hematoma in Korea: Preliminary Report of 285 Cases Registered in the Korean Trauma Data Bank System. | journal=Korean J Neurotrauma | year= 2016 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 47-54 | pmid=27857907 | doi=10.13004/kjnt.2016.12.2.47 | pmc=5110918 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27857907  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27298881">{{cite journal| author=Roy SP, Agrawal N| title=Brown Sequard Syndrome Secondary to a Spontaneous Cervical Epidural Hematoma - A Rare Entity. | journal=J Orthop Case Rep | year= 2012 | volume= 2 | issue= 4 | pages= 23-5 | pmid=27298881 | doi= | pmc=4722547 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27298881  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1766546">{{cite journal| author=Futawatari K, Matsuoka S, Kowada M| title=[A case of spinal epidural hematoma associated with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura]. | journal=No Shinkei Geka | year= 1991 | volume= 19 | issue= 12 | pages= 1187-90 | pmid=1766546 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1766546  }} </ref><ref name="pmid24073350">{{cite journal| author=Kamoda H, Ishikawa T, Miyagi M, Eguchi Y, Orita S, Suzuki M et al.| title=Delayed postoperative epidural hematoma presenting only with vesicorectal disturbance. | journal=Case Rep Orthop | year= 2013 | volume= 2013 | issue=  | pages= 861961 | pmid=24073350 | doi=10.1155/2013/861961 | pmc=3773434 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24073350  }} </ref><ref name="pmid27088028">{{cite journal| author=Aycan A, Ozdemir S, Arslan H, Gonullu E, Bozkına C| title=Idiopathic Thoracic Spontaneous Spinal Epidural Hematoma. | journal=Case Rep Surg | year= 2016 | volume= 2016 | issue=  | pages= 5430708 | pmid=27088028 | doi=10.1155/2016/5430708 | pmc=4819082 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27088028  }} </ref>
**loss of orientation to persons, place, and time.
**loss of orientation to persons, place, and time.
** [[Altered mental status]]
** [[Altered mental status]]
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** Muscle rigidity
** Muscle rigidity
** Unilaterally muscle weakness
** Unilaterally muscle weakness
** [[Nystagmus]]
** Abnormal extra-[[ocular]] movements
** Abnormal extra-[[ocular]] movements
**Non-reactive pupils to light and to [[Accommodation (eye)|accommodation]]
**Non-reactive pupils to light and to [[Accommodation (eye)|accommodation]]

Latest revision as of 16:07, 13 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohamadmostafa Jahansouz M.D.[2]

Overview

Findings in physical examination of patients with epidural hematoma may vary depend on the site and size of the hematoma. In patients with cranial epidural hematoma various focal neurologic signs may be seen depend on the site of hematoma. Physical examination of patients with cranial epidural hematoma is usually remarkable for loss of consciousness, unilateral diminished deep tendon reflexes, unilateral fixed mydriasis and abnormal pupillary reflex, down and out positioned eyes, loss of vision in contralateral side of hematoma and abnormal vertical gaze, unilaterally muscle weakness and unilateral sensory loss.

Glasgow coma scale in most patients with epidural hematoma is reduced. In patients with brain herniation due to the epidural hematoma respiratory arrest and Cushing's triad(hypertension, bradycardia, and irregular respiration) may be seen. Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include stiffness and tenderness.

Physical Examination

Appearance of the Patient

  • Patients with epidural hematoma usually appear ill and confused and may have sever pain.[7]

Vital Signs

Skin

HEENT

Findings in HEENT examination of patients with epidural hematoma may include:[1][8]

  • Evidence of trauma
  • Abnormal extra-ocular eye movements
  • Non-reactive pupils to light and to accommodation
  • Hearing acuity may be reduced
  • Tenderness upon palpation of the scalp
  • Facial tenderness

Neck

  • Findings in neck examination of patients with spinal epidural hematoma is usually include:[6]
  • Stiffness
  • Tenderness

Heart

Abdomen

  • Abdominal examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.

Back

  • In patients with spinal epidural hematoma point tenderness over the vertebral column may be present.[10]

Genitourinary

  • Genitourinary examination of patients with epidural hematoma is usually normal.

Neuromuscular

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Rangwala SD, Birk DM, Tobin MK, Hahn YS, Nikas DC (2017). "Spontaneous Resolution of Spinal Epidural Hematoma Resulting from Domestic Child Abuse: Case Report". Pediatr Neurosurg. 52 (1): 51–54. doi:10.1159/000448737. PMID 27644085.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Aycan A, Ozdemir S, Arslan H, Gonullu E, Bozkına C (2016). "Idiopathic Thoracic Spontaneous Spinal Epidural Hematoma". Case Rep Surg. 2016: 5430708. doi:10.1155/2016/5430708. PMC 4819082. PMID 27088028.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jeong YH, Oh JW, Cho S, Korean Trauma Data Bank System Committee (2016). "Clinical Outcome of Acute Epidural Hematoma in Korea: Preliminary Report of 285 Cases Registered in the Korean Trauma Data Bank System". Korean J Neurotrauma. 12 (2): 47–54. doi:10.13004/kjnt.2016.12.2.47. PMC 5110918. PMID 27857907.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Ben-Israel D, Isaacs AM, Morrish W, Gallagher NC (2017). "Acute vertex epidural hematoma". Surg Neurol Int. 8: 219. doi:10.4103/sni.sni_218_17. PMC 5609442. PMID 28966825.
  5. ↑ Allen KA (2016). "Pathophysiology and Treatment of Severe Traumatic Brain Injuries in Children". J Neurosci Nurs. 48 (1): 15–27, quiz E1. doi:10.1097/JNN.0000000000000176. PMC 4698894. PMID 26720317.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Aristedis R, Dimitrios B (2017). "Spinal epidural hematoma mimicking subarachnoid hemorrhage: A case study". Surg Neurol Int. 8: 182. doi:10.4103/sni.sni_197_17. PMC 5569401. PMID 28868194.
  7. ↑ Scheibl A, Calderón EM, Borau MJ, Prieto RM, González PF, Galiana GG (2012). "Epidural hematoma". J Pediatr Surg. 47 (2): e19–21. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2011.10.078. PMID 22325415.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Diyora B, Kukreja S, Nayak N, Kamble H, Sharma A (2014). "Complete third nerve palsy: Only presenting sign of extradural hematoma in an awake patient". Oman J Ophthalmol. 7 (2): 103–4. doi:10.4103/0974-620X.137177. PMC 4134542. PMID 25136243.
  9. ↑ Stevens RD, Shoykhet M, Cadena R (2015). "Emergency Neurological Life Support: Intracranial Hypertension and Herniation". Neurocrit Care. 23 Suppl 2: S76–82. doi:10.1007/s12028-015-0168-z. PMC 4791176. PMID 26438459.
  10. ↑ Xian H, Xu LW, Li CH, Hao JM, Wan WX, Feng GD; et al. (2017). "Spontaneous spinal epidural hematomas: One case report and rehabilitation outcome". Medicine (Baltimore). 96 (44): e8473. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000008473. PMC 5682821. PMID 29095302.
  11. ↑ Roy SP, Agrawal N (2012). "Brown Sequard Syndrome Secondary to a Spontaneous Cervical Epidural Hematoma - A Rare Entity". J Orthop Case Rep. 2 (4): 23–5. PMC 4722547. PMID 27298881.
  12. ↑ Futawatari K, Matsuoka S, Kowada M (1991). "[A case of spinal epidural hematoma associated with idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura]". No Shinkei Geka. 19 (12): 1187–90. PMID 1766546.
  13. ↑ Kamoda H, Ishikawa T, Miyagi M, Eguchi Y, Orita S, Suzuki M; et al. (2013). "Delayed postoperative epidural hematoma presenting only with vesicorectal disturbance". Case Rep Orthop. 2013: 861961. doi:10.1155/2013/861961. PMC 3773434. PMID 24073350.

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