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===Arachnoid Cysts===
===Arachnoid Cysts===


* [[Arachnoid cyst|Arachnoid cysts]] are filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] and covered by [[Arachnoid (brain)|arachnoidal]] [[Cell (biology)|cells]] that may develop in the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]].<ref name="urlArachnoid Cysts">{{cite web |url=http://arachnoidcyst.org/functions.php |title=How the Brain Works |publisher=Arachnoidcyst.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* [[Arachnoid cyst|Arachnoid cysts]] are filled with [[cerebrospinal fluid]] and covered by [[Arachnoid (brain)|arachnoidal]] [[Cell (biology)|cells]] that may develop in the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]].<ref name="urlArachnoid Cysts">{{cite web |url=http://arachnoidcyst.org/functions.php |title=How the Brain Works |publisher=Arachnoidcyst.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
*They are a [[congenital disorder]], and can be [[asymptomatic]].  
*They are a [[congenital disorder]], and can be [[asymptomatic]].  
*However, if there is a large [[cyst]], [[Symptom|symptoms]] may include [[headache]], [[Seizure|seizures]], [[ataxia]] (lack of [[muscle]] control), and[[hemiparesis]].  
*However, if there is a large [[cyst]], [[Symptom|symptoms]] may include [[headache]], [[Seizure|seizures]], [[ataxia]] (lack of [[muscle]] control), and[[hemiparesis]].  
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* [[Huntington's disease]] is a degenerative [[Neurological disorders|neurological disorder]] that is inherited.  
* [[Huntington's disease]] is a degenerative [[Neurological disorders|neurological disorder]] that is inherited.  
* Degeneration of [[Neuron|neuronal cells]] occurs throughout the [[brain]], especially in the [[striatum]].  
* Degeneration of [[Neuron|neuronal cells]] occurs throughout the [[brain]], especially in the [[striatum]].  
* There is a progressive decline that results in abnormal movements.<ref name="urlHuntington's Disease">{{cite web |url=http://www.hdsa.org/living-with-huntingtons/family-care/stages-of-hd.html |title=Huntington's Disease |publisher=Hdsa.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* There is a progressive decline that results in abnormal movements.<ref name="urlHuntington's Disease">{{cite web |url=http://www.hdsa.org/living-with-huntingtons/family-care/stages-of-hd.html |title=Huntington's Disease |publisher=Hdsa.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
* Statistics show that Huntington’s disease may affect 10 per 100,000 people of Western European descent.
* Statistics show that Huntington’s disease may affect 10 per 100,000 people of Western European descent.


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===Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)===
===Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)===


* [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] (often highly debated and controversial) is now largely considered to be a genuine organic disorder of the [[nervous system]], according to the United States government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Healthday/brain-studies-show-adhd-real-disease/story?id=4508193#.UYB2rKLvu_o |title=Brain Studies Show ADHD Is Real Disease - ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/10004300#al-1 |title=ADHD Study: General Information |publisher=Genome.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/202997.php |title=MNT - ADHD Is A Genetic Neurodevelopmental Disorder, Scientists Reveal |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736 |publisher=Medicalnewstoday.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssdrc.com/attention-deficit.html |title=Social Security Disability Ssi And Adhd, Attention Deficity Hyperactivity Disorder |publisher=Ssdrc.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] (often highly debated and controversial) is now largely considered to be a genuine organic disorder of the [[nervous system]], according to the United States government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Healthday/brain-studies-show-adhd-real-disease/story?id=4508193#.UYB2rKLvu_o |title=Brain Studies Show ADHD Is Real Disease - ABC News |publisher=Abcnews.go.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genome.gov/10004300#al-1 |title=ADHD Study: General Information |publisher=Genome.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/202997.php |title=MNT - ADHD Is A Genetic Neurodevelopmental Disorder, Scientists Reveal |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736 |publisher=Medicalnewstoday.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssdrc.com/attention-deficit.html |title=Social Security Disability Ssi And Adhd, Attention Deficity Hyperactivity Disorder |publisher=Ssdrc.com |date= |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
* It can be seriously debilitating in the severe forms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/112.00-MentalDisorders-Childhood.htm |title=112.00-MentalDisorders-Childhood |publisher=Ssa.gov |date=2013-05-31 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* It can be seriously debilitating in the severe forms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/disability/professionals/bluebook/112.00-MentalDisorders-Childhood.htm |title=112.00-MentalDisorders-Childhood |publisher=Ssa.gov |date=2013-05-31 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
* The [[Symptom|symptoms]] are thought to be caused by structural as well as biochemical imbalances in the [[brain]]; in particular, low levels of the [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]] [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]], which are responsible for controlling and maintaining attention and movement.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/adhd/adhd1.htm |title=Discovery Health "Causes of ADHD and the ADHD Brain" |publisher=Health.howstuffworks.com |date=2008-09-02 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/guide/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd |title=What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know |publisher=Webmd.com |date=2008-09-18 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* The [[Symptom|symptoms]] are thought to be caused by structural as well as biochemical imbalances in the [[brain]]; in particular, low levels of the [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]] [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]], which are responsible for controlling and maintaining attention and movement.<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/adhd/adhd1.htm |title=Discovery Health "Causes of ADHD and the ADHD Brain" |publisher=Health.howstuffworks.com |date=2008-09-02 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/guide/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd |title=What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know |publisher=Webmd.com |date=2008-09-18 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
* Many people with [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] continue to have [[Symptom|symptoms]] well into adulthood.<ref name="mayoclinic.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/adult-adhd/DS01161 |title=Adult ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) |publisher=MayoClinic.com |date=2013-03-07 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* Many people with [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] continue to have [[Symptom|symptoms]] well into adulthood.<ref name="mayoclinic.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/adult-adhd/DS01161 |title=Adult ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) |publisher=MayoClinic.com |date=2013-03-07 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>
* Also of note is an increased risk of the development of [[Dementia with Lewy bodies|Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB)]], and a direct [[genetic]] association of [[attention deficit disorder]] to [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref>http://www.empr.com/parkinsonism-adhd-common-genetic-link/article/359385/</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110118092132.htm |title=Adult ADHD significantly increases risk of common form of dementia, study finds |doi=10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03064.x |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2011-02-06 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dementiawithlewybodies/dementiawithlewybodies.htm |title=Dementia With Lewy Bodies Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) |publisher=Ninds.nih.gov |date=2013-06-06 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22166445 Synucleinopathies from bench to be... [Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2012&#93; - PubMed - NCBI<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://www.jci.org/articles/view/73778</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dopasolution.com/attention-deficit-disorder/|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>
* Also of note is an increased risk of the development of [[Dementia with Lewy bodies|Dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB)]], and a direct [[genetic]] association of [[attention deficit disorder]] to [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref>http://www.empr.com/parkinsonism-adhd-common-genetic-link/article/359385/</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/01/110118092132.htm |title=Adult ADHD significantly increases risk of common form of dementia, study finds |doi=10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03064.x |publisher=Sciencedaily.com |date=2011-02-06 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/dementiawithlewybodies/dementiawithlewybodies.htm |title=Dementia With Lewy Bodies Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) |publisher=Ninds.nih.gov |date=2013-06-06 |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22166445 Synucleinopathies from bench to be... [Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2012&#93; - PubMed - NCBI<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>http://www.jci.org/articles/view/73778</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dopasolution.com/attention-deficit-disorder/|title=|last=|first=|date=|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}}</ref>


===Locked-in Syndrome===
===Locked-in Syndrome===


* A medical condition, usually resulting from a [[stroke]] that damages part of the [[Brain stem|brainstem]].  
* Locked-in syndrome usually results from a [[stroke]] that damages part of the [[Brain stem|brainstem]].
* In this condition, the [[body]] and most of the facial muscles are [[Paralysis|paralysed]] but consciousness remains intact along with the ability to perform certain [[Eye movement|eye movements]].
* In this condition, the [[body]] and most of the facial muscles are [[Paralysis|paralysed]] but consciousness remains intact along with the ability to perform certain [[Eye movement|eye movements]].


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* [[Parkinson’s disease]] (PD) is a progressive illness of the [[nervous system]].  
* [[Parkinson’s disease]] (PD) is a progressive illness of the [[nervous system]].  
* It is caused by the death of dopamine-producing brain cells that affect motor skills and speech. Symptoms may include [[bradykinesia]] (slow physical movement), muscle rigidity, and tremors. Behavior, thinking, sensation disorders, and the sometimes co-morbid skin condition [[Seborrheic dermatitis]] are just some of PD's numerous nonmotor symptoms. Interestingly, [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) & [[Bi-polar disorder]], all appear to have some connection to one another, as all three nervous system disorders involve lower than normal levels of the brain chemical [[dopamine]](In ADHD, Parkinson's, & the depressive phase of Bi-polar disorder.) or too much dopamine(In,Mania or Manic states of [[Bi-polar disorder]].) in different areas of the brain:<ref name="livestrong.com">[http://www.livestrong.com/article/271723-adhd-and-parkinsons/ ADHD and Parkinson's | LIVESTRONG.COM<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="livestrong.com" /><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17982908 Association of Parkinson's disease wit...]</ref><ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140703102657.htm</ref><ref>http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crim/2011/154165/</ref>
* It is caused by the death of dopamine-producing [[Brain cell|brain cells]] that affect [[Motor skill|motor skills]] and [[speech]].  
*[[Symptom|Symptoms]] may include [[bradykinesia]] (slow physical movement), [[muscle rigidity]], and [[Tremor|tremors]].  
*Behavioral changes, thinking disturbance, sensation disorders, and [[seborrheic dermatitis]] are some of PD's numerous non-motor [[Symptom|symptoms]].  
*Interestingly, [[Parkinson's disease]], [[Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder|attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]], and [[bipolar disorder]] appear to have some connection to one another, as all three [[nervous system]] disorders involve lower than normal levels of the [[dopamine]] (In [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]], [[Parkinson's disease|PD]], and the depressive phase of [[bipolar disorder]]) or too much [[dopamine]] (In [[mania]] or [[Mania|manic]] states of [[bipolar disorder]]) in different areas of the [[brain]].<ref name="livestrong.com">[http://www.livestrong.com/article/271723-adhd-and-parkinsons/ ADHD and Parkinson's | LIVESTRONG.COM<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref name="livestrong.com" /><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17982908 Association of Parkinson's disease wit...]</ref><ref>http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140703102657.htm</ref><ref>http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crim/2011/154165/</ref>


===Tourette's===
===Tourette's Syndrome===
{{Main|Tourette's syndrome}}
{{Main|Tourette's syndrome}}
Tourette's syndrome is an inherited neurological disorder. Early onset may be during childhood, and it is characterized by physical and verbal [[tics]]. The exact cause of Tourette's, other than genetic factors, is unknown.
 
* [[Tourette's syndrome]] is an inherited [[Neurological disorders|neurological disorder]].  
* Early onset may be during childhood, and it is characterized by physical and verbal [[tics]].  
* The exact cause of [[Tourette's syndrome]], other than [[genetic]] factors, is unknown.


===Multiple sclerosis===
===Multiple sclerosis===
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, inflammatory [[demyelinating disease]], meaning that the [[myelin sheath]] of [[neuron]]s is damaged. Symptoms of MS include visual and sensation problems, muscle weakness, and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].
 
* [[Multiple sclerosis|Multiple sclerosis (MS)]] is a [[Chronic (medical)|chronic]], [[Inflammation|inflammatory]] [[demyelinating disease]], meaning that the [[myelin sheath]] of [[neuron]]s is damaged.  
* [[Symptom|Symptoms]] of [[Multiple sclerosis|MS]] include visual and sensation problems, [[muscle weakness]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].


==Causes==
==Causes==


===Trauma===
===Trauma===
Any type of traumatic brain injury (TBI) or injury done to the spinal cord can result in a wide spectrum of disabilities in a person. Depending on the section of the brain or spinal cord that suffers the trauma, the outcome may be anticipated.
 
* Any type of [[Traumatic brain injury|traumatic brain injury (TBI)]] or [[injury]] to the [[spinal cord]] can result in a wide spectrum of disabilities in a person.  
* Depending on the section of the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]] that suffers the [[Physical trauma|trauma]], the outcome may be anticipated.


===Infections===
===Infections===
Infectious diseases are transmitted in several ways. Some of these infections may affect the brain or spinal cord directly. Generally, an [[infection]] is a disease that is caused by the invasion of a microorganism or virus.
 
* An [[infection]] is a condition that results from the invasion by [[Microorganism|microorganisms]].
* [[Infectious disease|Infectious diseases]] are transmitted in several ways.  
* Some of these [[Infection|infections]] may affect the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]] directly.  


===Degeneration===
===Degeneration===
Degenerative spinal disorders involve a loss of function in the spine. Pressure on the spinal cord and nerves may be associated with [[herniation]] or disc displacement. Brain degeneration also causes central nervous system diseases. Studies have shown that [[obese]] people may have severe degeneration in the brain due to loss of tissue affecting [[cognition]].


===Structural defects===
* Degenerative spinal disorders involve a loss of function in the spine.
Common structural defects include birth defects,<ref name="urlBirth Defects">{{cite web |url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/system/ill/birth_defects.html |title=Birth Defects |publisher=Kidshealth.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref> [[anencephaly]], [[hypospadias]], and [[spina bifida]]. Children born with structural defects may have malformed limbs, heart problems, and facial abnormalities.
* Pressure on the [[spinal cord]] and [[Nerve|nerves]] may be associated with vertebral disc herniation or displacement.
* [[Brain]] degeneration also causes [[central nervous system]] [[Disease|diseases]].
* Studies have shown that [[obese]] people may have severe degeneration in the [[brain]] due to the loss of tissue affecting [[cognition]].
 
===Structural Defects===
 
* Common structural defects include [[Congenital disorder|birth defects]], [[anencephaly]], [[hypospadias]], and [[spina bifida]].<ref name="urlBirth Defects">{{cite web |url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/system/ill/birth_defects.html |title=Birth Defects |publisher=Kidshealth.org |accessdate=2013-10-30}}</ref>  
* Children born with structural defects may have malformed limbs, heart problems, and facial abnormalities.


===Tumors===
===Tumors===

Revision as of 21:59, 25 September 2019

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

Overview

A central nervous system (CNS) disease can affect either the spinal cord (myelopathy) or brain (encephalopathy), both of which are part of the central nervous system.

CNS Composition and Functions

Spinal Cord

Brain

Main article: Human brain
  • It allows the body to function.
  • The brain is protected by the skull; however, if the brain is damaged, the results to the human body can be very consequential.

Types of Disease

Bipolar Disorder

Catalepsy

Epilepsy/Seizures

Encephalitis

Meningitis

Migraine

Tropical Spastic Paraparesis

Arachnoid Cysts

Huntington's Disease

Alzheimer’s Disease

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Locked-in Syndrome

  • Locked-in syndrome usually results from a stroke that damages part of the brainstem.
  • In this condition, the body and most of the facial muscles are paralysed but consciousness remains intact along with the ability to perform certain eye movements.

Parkinson's Disease

Tourette's Syndrome

Main article: Tourette's syndrome

Multiple sclerosis

Causes

Trauma

Infections

Degeneration

  • Degenerative spinal disorders involve a loss of function in the spine.
  • Pressure on the spinal cord and nerves may be associated with vertebral disc herniation or displacement.
  • Brain degeneration also causes central nervous system diseases.
  • Studies have shown that obese people may have severe degeneration in the brain due to the loss of tissue affecting cognition.

Structural Defects

Tumors

A tumor is an abnormal growth of body tissue. In the beginning, tumors can be noncancerous, but if they become malignant, they are cancerous. In general, they appear when there is a problem with cellular division. Problems with the body’s immune system can lead to tumors.

Autoimmune disorders

An autoimmune disorder is a condition where in the immune system attacks and destroys healthy body tissue. This is caused by a loss of tolerance to proteins in the body, resulting in immune cells recognising these as 'foreign' and directing an immune response against them.

Stroke

A stroke is an interruption of the blood supply to the brain. Approximately every 40 seconds, someone in the US has a stroke.[28] This is can happen when a blood vessel is blocked by a blood clot or when a blood vessel ruptures, causing blood to leak to the brain. If the brain cannot get enough oxygen and blood, brain cells can die, leading to permanent damage.

Signs and symptoms

Every disease has different signs and symptoms. Some of them are persistent headache; pain in the face, back, arms, or legs; an inability to concentrate; loss of feeling; memory loss; loss of muscle strength; tremors; seizures; increased reflexes, spasticity, tics; paralysis; and slurred speech. One should seek medical attention if affected by these.

Treatments

There is a wide range of treatments for central nervous system diseases. These can range from surgery to rehabilitation or prescribed medications.

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Organization of the Nervous System". Users.rcn.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  2. ↑ http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml
  3. ↑ http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crim/2011/154165/
  4. ↑ What Is Catalepsy?
  5. ↑ "How Serious Are Seizures?". Epilepsy.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  6. ↑ "West Nile Virus". Medicinenet.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  7. ↑ "How the Brain Works". Arachnoidcyst.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  8. ↑ "Huntington's Disease". Hdsa.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  9. ↑ "Brain Studies Show ADHD Is Real Disease - ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  10. ↑ "ADHD Study: General Information". Genome.gov. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  11. ↑ "MNT - ADHD Is A Genetic Neurodevelopmental Disorder, Scientists Reveal". Medicalnewstoday.com. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  12. ↑ "Social Security Disability Ssi And Adhd, Attention Deficity Hyperactivity Disorder". Ssdrc.com. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  13. ↑ "112.00-MentalDisorders-Childhood". Ssa.gov. 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  14. ↑ "Discovery Health "Causes of ADHD and the ADHD Brain"". Health.howstuffworks.com. 2008-09-02. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  15. ↑ "What Is ADHD? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: What You Need to Know". Webmd.com. 2008-09-18. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  16. ↑ "Adult ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)". MayoClinic.com. 2013-03-07. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  17. ↑ http://www.empr.com/parkinsonism-adhd-common-genetic-link/article/359385/
  18. ↑ "Adult ADHD significantly increases risk of common form of dementia, study finds". Sciencedaily.com. 2011-02-06. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03064.x. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  19. ↑ "Dementia With Lewy Bodies Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)". Ninds.nih.gov. 2013-06-06. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  20. ↑ Synucleinopathies from bench to be... [Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2012] - PubMed - NCBI
  21. ↑ http://www.jci.org/articles/view/73778
  22. ↑ https://dopasolution.com/attention-deficit-disorder/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 ADHD and Parkinson's | LIVESTRONG.COM
  24. ↑ Association of Parkinson's disease wit...
  25. ↑ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/07/140703102657.htm
  26. ↑ http://www.hindawi.com/journals/crim/2011/154165/
  27. ↑ "Birth Defects". Kidshealth.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
  28. ↑ "Stroke". Hearthealthywomen.org. Retrieved 2013-10-30.

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