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Hypercore-self evaluation predicts job satisfaction and performance<ref name="JudgeBono2001">{{cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Bono|first2=Joyce E.|title=Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=86|issue=1|year=2001|pages=80–92|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80}}</ref>.
Hypercore-self evaluation predicts job satisfaction and performance<ref name="JudgeBono2001">{{cite journal|last1=Judge|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Bono|first2=Joyce E.|title=Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=86|issue=1|year=2001|pages=80–92|issn=1939-1854|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80}}</ref>.
===Leaders' encoding processes===
Leaders' encoding processes may be important<ref name="GottfredsonReina2019">{{cite journal|last1=Gottfredson|first1=Ryan K.|last2=Reina|first2=Christopher S.|title=Exploring why leaders do what they do: An integrative review of the situation-trait approach and situation-encoding schemas|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|year=2019|pages=101373|issn=10489843|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101373}}</ref><ref>Gottfredson R, Reina C. To Be a Great Leader, You Need the Right Mindset. Harvard Business Review. 2020 Available at </ref>:
* Mindsets: fixed and growth<ref name="Dweck1986">{{cite journal|last1=Dweck|first1=Carol S.|title=Motivational processes affecting learning.|journal=American Psychologist|volume=41|issue=10|year=1986|pages=1040–1048|issn=1935-990X|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040}}</ref><ref>Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballentine Books. {{ISBN|9780345472328 }}</ref>
* Goal orientations
* Mindsets: deliberative and implemental mindsets
* Regulatory focus.


==Complexity leadership theory==
==Complexity leadership theory==

Revision as of 14:01, 21 January 2020

Template:Tocright Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[2]

Leadership is "the function of directing or controlling the actions or attitudes of an individual or group with more or less willing acquiescence of the followers".[1] It is possilbe that simply being an opinion leader may be effective[2].

Leadership development in health care is perceived as being many years behind that of other industries.[3]

Leadership affects organizational performance - about 5% to 20% of variation in profitability is accounted for by leadership[4].

Evidence-based management

A gap between what research shows and managers practice has been noted[5][6][7][8].

Management students in Australia view evidence-based management (EBMgt) in one of 4 ways[9]:

  • EBMgt as an unrealistic way of doing management. 12% or respondents
  • EBMgt as a way of doing management in particular situations. 34% or respondents
  • EBMgt as a generally useful way of doing management. 45% or respondents
  • EBMgt as an ideal way of being a manager. 9% or respondents

Evidence-based management (EBMgt) has been advocated to improve management practices[10] and measurement[11]. This is based on the success of evidence-based medicine and has been called the management-as-medicine motif (MAMM)[12]. Concern about the approach of EBMgt has been based on a Cochrane Collaboration review of nursing turnover[13] that focused only on randomized data[12].

Concerns exists about how well MBA programs[14], bridge and practitioner journals[15], and textbooks[16] teach EBMgt. Perhaps as a result, a gap has been documented between research and human resources practioners[17].

Systematic reviews have been encouraged as alternative to narrative reviews for summarizing evidence in business and management research.[18]

Reporting standards have been proposed[19].

Selection and development of leaders

Individuals with promotive voices rather than a prohibitive voice are more likely to become leaders, especially if they are male[20].

Evolutionary biology may partly explain selection of leaders[21].

One study has validated the Peter Principle[22].

"Emergent leaders showed a higher amount of active gestures and less passive facial expressions than non-leaders" according to eye-tracking studies of teams.[23]

Personality traits

Among the following 'Big five' personality traits[24]:

  • Openness to experience
  • Conscientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism

Narcissism may be selected for.[25][26]

Dunning-Kruger effect in hospital administrators[27]

Dunning-Kruger effect

The selection for narcissism may be related to the Dunning-Kruger effect which has been noted to occur in the self-assessment of leadership skills.[27][28][29][30][31] The overconfidence of some individuals may be viewed as competence by other individuals[32] .

Aphorisms about selection of leaders:

  • Peter Principle
  • Dilbert Principle

Core-self evaluation

Core-self evaluation includes[33]:

  • Self-esteem
  • Self-efficacy
  • Locus of control
  • Emotional stability (low neuroticism)

Hypercore self‐evaluation has a positive effect on innovation behavior by leaders; however, selfism and overconfidence has a negative effect[34].

Low managerial self-efficacy and ego defensivism makes managers less likely to solict employee voice, positively evaluate an employee who speaks up, and reduced implementation of employee voice[35] .

Humility

The harm of narcissism in leaders may be mitigated by humility[36] Humility, predicted by self-expansion theory, has been found to increase self-expansion and self-efficacy of followers[37]. However, humility may not be effective in teams that expect a high power distance or expect dominating leaders.[38]

Masters in Business Administration

CEOs with a MBA may[39][40] or may not[41] underperform other CEOs due to emphasizing short-term business outcomes[42] or personal gain[43] rather than sustainability.[44]

It is not clear that the curricula in masters programs reflect best research[45].

Leadership training

Leadership training can be effective[46].

Leadership styles related to worksite climate

Leadership research is complicated by construct proliferation and construct redundancy[47]

Leadership style affects work climate.

Leadership styles in health care may affect institutional finances, specifically operating margins.[48]

Early categorization of leadership styles was by Lewin in 1938 who labeled styles as autocratic, democratic.[49]

The terms transactional and transformation were introduced by Weber in 1947.[50] Weber said the charismatic leader was a transformer and the bureaucratic leader was transactional.

Similar concepts are Theory X and Theory Y management by Douglas McGregor in 1960[51]. Theory X is transactional and Theory Y is transformational.

The concept of transactional versus transformation leadership was using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) first proposed by Bass in 1978.[52]

Measurement of transactional versus transformation leadership using the was first proposed by Bass in 1985.[53]

Bass added the concept of laissez-faire leadership in 1997.[54][55]

Leadership styles may effect burnout of employees[56] and leaders themselves.[57][58].

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire may be the most common of the destructive leadership patterns[59].

Laissez-faire, in health care, is associated with low subordinate job satisfaction and effort.[60] In other industries, laissez-faire is also associated with reduced team performance[61].

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap.[62]

Transactional

The transactional style may have arose from early views of leadership:

  • Adam Smith wrote about the worker, “It is the interest of every man to live as much at his ease as he can”.
  • Frederick Taylor later added that the worker “is so stupid that the word ‘percentage’ has no meaning to him, and he must consequently be trained by a man more intelligent than himself.”

Transactional leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits[63]:

  • Agreeableness
  • Extraversion
  • Openness (insignificant)
  • Conscientiousness (insignificant)
  • Neuroticism (negative association)


When converting from transactional to empowering leadership, teams may transiently function more slowly.[64]

Management by exception: active

Management by exception: passive

Among physicians, management by passive exception and laissez-faire and may overlap and management by passive exception may be within laissez-faire.[62]

Transformational

Transformational leadership has the following dimensions (4 I's), the first two, when combined, are charisma:

  • Idealized influence (role modeling)
  • Inspirational Motivation. Motivation may be better provided by beneficiaries of a company's services rather than the company's leadership[65]

.

  • Individualized Consideration (of followers)
  • Intellectual Stimulation

Transformational leadership is associated with the following of the Big 5 Personality Traits[63]:

  • Extraversion (strongest)
  • Openness
  • Agreeableness
  • Conscientiousness
  • Neuroticism (negative association)

Authentic leadership and ethical leadership may actually be tranformational leadership[47].

This style may be the most effective in healthcare on employee responses and clinical outcomes.[66]

Transformational leadership may increase employee thriving and decrease burnout.[67]

Transformational style may better promote team learning behaviors than a transactional style.[68]

Compared to transformational leadership, in transformational leadership the leader's focus is on the employees rather than the organization.[69]

Transformational leadership may build on transactional leadership, "for transformational leadership to be effective,the leader must first build trust and follower responsiveness on the basis of tangible, transactional processes perceived as fair."[60]

Transformational leadership may cause leader emotional exhaustion and subsequent leader turnover intentions, especially when followers are low in conscientiousness or competence[70].

Measurement

Transformational leadership can be measured with the proprietary Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (TLQ) [71] or other instruments[72].

Enabling or Empowering leadership

Enabling leadership attempts to bridge the needs to innovate and to produce[73][74][75]. Enabling leadership is based on complexity leadership theory[76].

Empowering leadership is defined variably[77][78][79] but includes:

  • Autonomy support[80]. Autonomy adds to mastery.[80] Perceived autonomy is associated with less burnout.[81]

A more detailed summary is proposed by Spreitzer[73]:

  1. The First Discipline: Empower the Person Who Matters Most
  2. The Second Discipline: Continuous Vision and Challenge
  3. The Third Discipline: Continuous Support and Security
  4. The Fourth Discipline: Continuous Openness and Trust
  5. The Fifth Discipline: Continuous Guidance and Control

Similar concepts are[82]:

  • Gardener leadership[83]
  • Servant leadership[84]. Servant ladership may promote thriving[85].
  • Three types of leadership that focus on giving employees decision making but may not include giving employees information to guide their decision making.
    • Shared Leadership[86][87]
    • Distributed leadership
    • Participative Leadership[88]
    • Democratic leadership

Empowering leadership may be compatible with AGILE development, which may conflict with command and control leadership[89].

The World Health Organization recommends participatory leadership as one of 4 reforms needed for primary health care, “leadership reforms need to steer away from either ‘command and control’ or ‘laissez-faire disengagement’ towards a participatory style”[90]

In health care administration, physician leaders have difficulty relinquishing control and feel threatened by empowering others[91].

Impact

Shared leadership may improve team performance according to a meta-analysis of 42 studies[92].

Empowering leadership may improve performnce[93][94][77].

Principle of subsidiarity

Subsidiarity is defined as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level".[95][96]

Empowering leadership is consistent with the principle of subsidiarity[97].

  • "Just as it is gravely wrong to take from individuals what they can accomplish by their own initiative and industry and give it to the community, so also it is an injustice and at the same time a grave evil and disturbance of right order to assign to a greater and higher association what lesser and subordinate organizations can do. For every social activity ought of its very nature to furnish help to the members of the body social, and never destroy and absorb them."[98]

Measuring empowerment

Multiple instruments are available[99].

The Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) has been proposed to measure this style.[100] The ELQ measures either categories:

  1. Coaching
  2. Informing. Examination of the 6 questions in this scale suggest informing here does not fit with information sharing as proposed by complexity science.
  3. Leading By Example
  4. Showing Concern/Interacting with the Team
  5. Participative Decision-Making

Servant leadership can be measure with a 28-item or an abbreviated 7-item servant leadership scale[101]:

  1. My manager can tell if something work-related is going wrong
  2. My manager makes my career development a priority
  3. I would seek help from my manager if I had a personal problem
  4. My manager emphasizes the importance of giving back to the community
  5. My manager puts my best interests ahead of his/her own
  6. My manager gives me the freedom to handle difficult situations in the way that I feel is best
  7. My manager would NOT compromise ethical principles in order to achieve success

Benefits

Empowering leadership is associated with:

  • Performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity according to a meta-analysis as compared transformational leadership and leader–member exchange[102]
  • Creativity and innovative behavior (ρ = .36), contextual performance (ρ = .33), withdrawal behaviors (ρ = .28), and job performance (ρ = .25) according to a meta-analysis.[103]
  • Increased employee intrinsic motivation and creativity[104]
  • Increased productivity by implementing Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) as compared to initiating operational improvements[105]
  • Increased knowledge sharing and team efficacy which led to increased performance.[106]
  • Increases work engagement via work meaningfulness[107] or empowering leadership has been proposed for healthcare.[108][109][110]

Servant leadership behavior may be more effective than narcissism[111] and a serving culture is positively related both to restaurant performance and employee job performance[112].

Harm

Servant leadership may be costly to the leader[113]

Two contradictory faces of empowerment are [114]:

  • Enabling
  • Burdening

Contingency or situational theories

In this approach, the role of the leader is contingent on the situation.

This includes:

  • Tannenbaurm's and Schmidt's continuum introduced in 1958[115][116]
  • Hersey's and Blanchard's situational leadership in 1969.[117]
  • Vroon and Yetton's contingency model in 1973[118]
  • Heifetz's Adaptive leadership introduced in 1997[119]

Modulators of impact of leadership styles

Characteristics of subordinates

Regulatory fit theory has found[120]:

  • Subordinates high in locomotion prefer leaders who have "'forceful' leadership style, represented by 'coercive', 'legitimate', and 'directive' kinds of strategic influence'
  • Subordinates high in assessment prefer leaders who have "'advisory' leadership style, represented by 'expert', 'referent', and 'participative' kinds of strategic influence'

Regulatory focus

Regulatory focus theory poses that people vary in their goals[121]:

  • Promotion-focus on hopes and accomplishments, also known as gains
  • Prevention-focus based on safety and responsibilities, also known as non-losses

Focus may also predict jealousy and envy[122].

Core-self evaluation

Core-self evaluation includes[33]:

  • Self-esteem
  • Self-efficacy
  • Locus of control
  • Emotional stability (low neuroticism)

Hypercore-self evaluation predicts job satisfaction and performance[33].

Leaders' encoding processes

Leaders' encoding processes may be important[123][124]:

  • Goal orientations
  • Mindsets: deliberative and implemental mindsets
  • Regulatory focus.

Complexity leadership theory

Complexity science has been proposed as a framework for health care organization since early this century.[127][128]

Complexity leadership theory has varying descriptions of the metathreme of leadership (see table).

Leadership metathemes described by complexity leadership and their mapping to Bass and Bass leadership framework
Bass & Bass framework[129] Uhl-Bien and Arena, 2018[74] Hazy and Pottras, 2018[130][131]
Change leadership Entrepreneurial leadership
(formerly called Administrative leadership[132]) 		Generative (information gathering/generative/adaptive functions): "interactions are intended to respond to emerging changes and risks by exploring the ecosystem and creating optionality"
Enabling leadership
(details below[76])
Task leadership Operational leadership
(formerly called Administrative leadership[132]) 		Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions): "interactions are intended to exploit present opportunities to acquire resources in the ecosystem and maximize return on assets"
Relational leadership Community building

Anderson and McDaniel proposed in 2000 that key leadership tasks are[127][133]:

  1. Relationship building
  2. Loose coupling
  3. Complicating
  4. Diversifying
  5. Sense making (such as positive and negative feedback)
  6. Learning
  7. Improvising
  8. Thinking about the future

A model of of learning based on complexity science has been developed.[134]

Complexity Leadership Theory, also called Complex systems leadership theory, was proposed in 2006.[135][136][137] Based on this theory, Hazy has proposed leadership skills similar to Anderson and McDaniel:[131]

  1. Generative (information gathering/generative/adaptive functions)
  2. Administrative (information using/convergence/administrative functions)
  3. Community-building
  4. Information gathering
  5. Information using (such as positive and negative feedback)

Uhl-Bien has proposed that tasks of enabling leadership, which is an outgrowth of complexity leadership are[76]:

  • Brokerage - fostering of ideas that are triggered at the intersection of networks
  • Leveraging Adaptive Tension
  • Linking Up - "Creating or energizing network connections that enable information flows, or amplify movements, to feed and fuel emergence."
  • Tags and Attractors - "Listening for language (messages, stories) and symbols (pictures, objects) that ‘stick’ in a system and attract energy & using them to create tags to amplify and channel emergence"
  • Simple Rules
  • Network Closure

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with open book management.

Complexity Leadership Theory may be seen as an evolution of Heifetz's adaptive leadership[138]

Complexity Leadership Theory is consistent with knowledge-oriented leadership, which is defined as "an attitude or action, observed or imputed, that prompts the creation, sharing, and utilization of new knowledge in a way that seems to bring a shift in thinking and collective outcomes."[139]

Measurement

Complexity Leadership tactics can be measured with 3 concepts[139]:

  • Knowledge-oriented Leadership
  • Knowledge Management Capability (technological, structural, cultural, application, acquisition, sharing)
    • Example: cultural (highest loading questions):
      • My organization takes advantage of new knowledge.
      • My organization quickly applies knowledge to critical competitive needs.
      • My organization quickly links sources of knowledge in solving problems.
  • Open Innovation

Another survey has been proposed and construct validating. The instrument consists of 10 items in 2 scales[130]. Response format asks frequency that employees observe leadership tactics with Likert responses ranging from 'Never' to an average of daily:

  • Generative (information gathering). Hazy also describes this as "Resilience Leadership Mode...to address risk (variance) by promoting the value potential of optionality"[140]
    • Supporting difference of opinion
    • Providing resources and time to try new things
    • Encouraging learning visits to other organizations
    • Encouraging new approaches
    • Forgiving failure
  • Administrative (information using). Hazy also describes this as "Effectiveness Leadership Mode...to maximize return (expected value) by driving the potential value of efficient operations"[140]
    • Driving accountability
    • Setting objective metrics of success or failure
    • Quieting voices which distract from the purpose
    • Asking people to invest more time and energy
    • Establishing specific targets and deliverables.

Practice Adaptive Reserve (PAR) can be measured[141]. Reciprocal learning may be measured[142].

Leadership tactics related to worksite innovation

(see enabling leadership and complexity leadership above)

Innovation can be classified as[139][143]:

  • "Inbound OI involves identifying and acquiring knowledge from external sources"
  • "Outbound OI involves exploitation of a firm’s knowledge and technology through commercialization in the external market"

Organizational cultural influences on innovation has been systematically reviewed[144]. Cultural attributes include:

  • Learning culture
  • Adhocracy culture
  • Clan rather than hierarchical culture
  • Low power distance culture

Once tactic to foster innovation is to concentrate on lead users[145] .

Religion and faith in leadership

The role of religion and faith in leadership is being increasingly explored[146][147].


Complications of leadership

Power may lead cerebral changes in those given power[148]. This may lead to hubristic syndrome[149]

The Earned Dogmatism Effect may lead to close-mindedness[150].

Employee turnover

Leadership affects employee turnover[151]

. Rates of employee turnover, especially voluntary turnover, affects organizational performance[152].

See also

Links

References

  1. ↑ Anonymous (2024), Leadership (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
  2. ↑ Flodgren G, O'Brien MA, Parmelli E, Grimshaw JM (2019). "Local opinion leaders: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 6: CD000125. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000125.pub5. PMID 31232458.
  3. ↑ McAlearney, Ann Scheck. "Leadership development in healthcare: a qualitative study." Journal of Organizational Behavior 27.7 (2006): 967-982. doi:10.1002/job.417
  4. ↑ Crossland, C., & Hambrick, D. C. (2007). How national systems differ in their constraints on corporate executives: A study of CEO effects in three countries. Strategic Management Journal, 28(8), 767-789. doi:10.1002/smj.610
  5. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Bartunek, J. M., & Daft, R. L. (2001). Across the Great Divide: Knowledge Creation and Transfer Between Practitioners and Academics. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 340–355. doi:10.5465/3069460
  6. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Brown, K. G., Colbert, A. E., & Hansen, R. A. (2002). Seven Common Misconceptions about Human Resource Practices: Research Findings versus Practitioner Beliefs and Executive Commentary. The Academy of Management Executive (1993-2005), 16(3), 92–103.
  7. ↑ Shapiro, D. L., & Kirkman, B. (2018). It’s Time to Make Business School Research More Relevant. Harvard Business Review.
  8. ↑ Shapiro, D. L., Kirkman, B. L., & Courtney, H. G. (2007). Perceived Causes and Solutions of the Translation Problem in Management Research. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 249–266. doi:10.5465/amj.2007.24634433
  9. ↑ Wright, April L.; Irving, Gemma; Hibbert, Paul; Greenfield, Geoff (2018). "Student Understandings of Evidence-Based Management: Ways of Doing and Being". Academy of Management Learning & Education. 17 (4): 453–473. doi:10.5465/amle.2016.0249. ISSN 1537-260X.
  10. ↑ Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Robert I. Sutton. "Evidence-based management." Harvard business review 84.1 (2006): 62.
  11. ↑ Kelloway, E. K. (2017). Toward evidence-based practice in organizational wellbeing. In The Routledge Companion to Wellbeing at Work. Routledge Handbooks Online. doi:10.4324/9781315665979
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Morrell, Kevin, and Mark Learmonth. "Evidence-based management." The Oxford Handbook of Management (2017): 419. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198708612.013.21
  13. ↑ Webster J, Flint A (2014). "Exit interviews to reduce turnover amongst healthcare professionals". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (8): CD006620. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006620.pub5. PMID 25133355.
  14. ↑ Charlier, S. D., Brown, K. G., & Rynes, S. L. (2011). Teaching Evidence-Based Management in MBA Programs: What Evidence Is There? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(2), 222–236. doi:10.5465/amle.10.2.zqr222
  15. ↑ Rynes, Sara L., Tamara L. Giluk, and Kenneth G. Brown. 2007. “The Very Separate Worlds of Academic and Practitioner Periodicals in Human Resource Management: Implications for Evidence-Based Management.” Academy of Management Journal 50 (5): 987–1008. doi:10.5465/amj.2007.27151939
  16. ↑ Aguinis, Herman, Ravi S. Ramani, Nawaf Alabduljader, James Bailey, and Joowon Lee. 2018. “A Pluralist Conceptualization of Scholarly Impact in Management Education: Students as Stakeholders.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, August. doi:10.5465/amle.2017.0488
  17. ↑ Rynes, S. L., Colbert, A. E., & Brown, K. G. (2002). HR Professionals’ beliefs about effective human resource practices: correspondence between research and practice. Human Resource Management, 41(2), 149–174. doi:10.1002/hrm.10029
  18. ↑ Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence‐informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British journal of management, 14(3), 207-222. doi:10.1111/1467-8551.00375
  19. ↑ Aczel (2019). A consensus-based transparency checklist Available at https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-019-0772-6
  20. ↑ McLean, Elizabeth et al. The Social Consequences of Voice: An Examination of Voice Type and Gender on Status and Subsequent Leader Emergence. Academy of Management Journal (2018) {doi|10.5465/amj.2016.0148}}}
  21. ↑ Van Vugt, M. (2006). Evolutionary Origins of Leadership and Followership. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 354–371. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_5
  22. ↑ Benson et al (2017). Promotions and the Peter Principle. Benson, Alan and Li, Danielle and Shue, Kelly, Promotions and the Peter Principle (February 12, 2018). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3047193 or doi:10.2139/ssrn.3047193
  23. ↑ Gerpott, F. H., Lehmann-Willenbrock, N., Silvis, J. D., & Van Vugt, M. (2017). In the eye of the beholder? An eye-tracking experiment on emergent leadership in team interactions. The Leadership Quarterly. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.11.003
  24. ↑ https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~johnlab/bfi.htm
  25. ↑ Mayo. If humble people make better leaders, why do we fall for charismatic narcissists. Harvard Business Review. 2017
  26. ↑ Brunell AB, Gentry WA, Campbell WK, Hoffman BJ, Kuhnert KW, Demarree KG (2008). "Leader emergence: the case of the narcissistic leader". Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 34 (12): 1663–76. doi:10.1177/0146167208324101. PMID 18794326.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Van Velsor, E., Taylor, S., & Leslie, J. B. (1993). An examination of the relationships among self‐perception accuracy, self‐awareness, gender, and leader effectiveness. Human Resource Management, 32(2‐3), 249-263. doi:10.1002/hrm.3930320205
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  29. ↑ Bass, Bernard M.; Yammarino, Francis J. (1991). "Congruence of Self and Others' Leadership Ratings of Naval Officers for Understanding Successful Performance". Applied Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. 40 (4): 437–454. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1991.tb01002.x. ISSN 0269-994X.
  30. ↑ Atwater, Leanne E., and Francis J. Yammarino. "Does self‐other agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the validity of leadership and performance predictions?." Personnel Psychology 45.1 (1992): 141-164. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00848.x
  31. ↑ Sheldon, Oliver J., David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames. "Emotionally unskilled, unaware, and uninterested in learning more: Reactions to feedback about deficits in emotional intelligence." Journal of Applied Psychology 99.1 (2014): 125. doi:10.1037/a0034138
  32. ↑ Belmi, Peter; Neale, Margaret A.; Reiff, David; Ulfe, Rosemary (2019). "The social advantage of miscalibrated individuals: The relationship between social class and overconfidence and its implications for class-based inequality". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. doi:10.1037/pspi0000187. ISSN 1939-1315.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Judge, Timothy A.; Bono, Joyce E. (2001). "Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis". Journal of Applied Psychology. 86 (1): 80–92. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80. ISSN 1939-1854.
  34. ↑ Stock, Ruth; Groß, Matthias; Xin, Katherine R. (2019). "Will Self-Love Take a Fall? Effects of Top Executives' Positive Self-Regard on Firm Innovativeness". Journal of Product Innovation Management. 36 (1): 41–65. doi:10.1111/jpim.12443. ISSN 0737-6782.
  35. ↑ Fast, Nathanael J.; Burris, Ethan R.; Bartel, Caroline A. (2014). "Managing to Stay in the Dark: Managerial Self-Efficacy, Ego Defensiveness, and the Aversion to Employee Voice". Academy of Management Journal. 57 (4): 1013–1034. doi:10.5465/amj.2012.0393. ISSN 0001-4273.
  36. ↑ Owens, B. P., Wallace, A. S., & Waldman, D. A. (2015). Leader narcissism and follower outcomes: The counterbalancing effect of leader humility. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1203. doi:10.1037/a0038698
  37. ↑ Mao, J., Chiu, C.-Y. (Chad), Owens, B. P., Brown, J. A., & Liao, J. (n.d.). Growing Followers: Exploring the Effects of Leader Humility on Follower Self-Expansion, Self-Efficacy, and Performance. Journal of Management Studies, 0(ja). Template:10.1111/joms.12395
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