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==Overview==
==Overview==
Adiposogenital dystrophy must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [[polyphagia]], [[obesity]], [[Klinefelter's syndrome|microorchidism]], and a [[delayed puberty]].
Adiposogenital dystrophy must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [[polyphagia]], [[obesity]], and a [[delayed puberty]] such as [[Prader-Willi syndrome]], [[Bardet-Biedl syndrome]], [[Borjeson syndrome]] and [[Klinefelter's syndrome]].
==Differential diagnosis==
 
Adiposogenital dystrophy must be differentiated from [[prader-Willi syndrome]], [[bardet-Biedl syndrome]], and [[borjeson syndrome]].{{cite web |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/froelichs-syndrome/ |title=Froelich Syndrome - NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |format= |work= |accessdate=}}
==Differentiating Adiposogenital Dystrophy from Other Diseases==
{| style="border: 0px; font-size: 90%; margin: 3px; width: 1000px" align="center"
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! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Disease/Condition}}
! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Clinical presentation }}
! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Demographics/History}}
! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Diagnosis }}
! style="background: #4479BA; width: 200px;" | {{fontcolor|#FFF|Treatment}}
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold; text-align:center;" |[[Adiposogenital Dystrophy]]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
Partial destruction of hypothalamic nuclei resulting in hormonal dysfunction with obesity, growth retardation, and hypogonadism. Deep brain stimulation may also cause symptoms similar to [[adiposogenital syndrome]] <ref name="pmid15878586">{{cite journal| author=Tuite PJ, Maxwell RE, Ikramuddin S, Kotz CM, Kotzd CM, Billington CJ | display-authors=etal| title=Weight and body mass index in Parkinson's disease patients after deep brain stimulation surgery. | journal=Parkinsonism Relat Disord | year= 2005 | volume= 11 | issue= 4 | pages= 247-52 | pmid=15878586 | doi=10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.01.006 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15878586  }} </ref> <ref>Romito LM, Scerrati M, Contarino MF, Iacoangeli M, Bentivoglio AR, Albanese A (2003) Bilateral high frequency subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: long-term neurological follow-up. J Neurosurg Sci 47:119–128 Medline</ref>.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
Prevalence is unknown, but it is more common in males <ref>Babinski-fröhlich syndrome. Bissonnette B, & Luginbuehl I, & Marciniak B, & Dalens B.J.(Eds.), (2006). Syndromes: Rapid Recognition and Perioperative Implications. McGraw Hill. https://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=852&sectionid=49517244</ref> <ref>Burfeind KG, Yadav V, Marks DL. Hypothalamic Dysfunction and Multiple Sclerosis: Implications for Fatigue and Weight Dysregulation. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2016 Nov;16(11):98.</ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
Diagnosis is based on visual field tests, hormonal assays, [[CT]], [[MRI]], autoimmune assays <ref>Sanchez Jimenez JG, De Jesus O. Hypothalamic Dysfunction. [Updated 2021 Aug 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-</ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Diet and exercise
* Radiation
* Surgery, thermoablation, radiosurgery
* Hormone replacement<ref>Sanchez Jimenez JG, De Jesus O. Hypothalamic Dysfunction. [Updated 2021 Aug 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-</ref>
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold; text-align:center;" |[[Prader-Willi Syndrome]]
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
It presents with hyperphagia, [[hypogonadism]], truncal obesity, intellectual disability, growth delay, hypotonia, almond-shaped palpebral fissures, narrow frontal diameter, thin upper vermilion with downturned corners of the mouth behavioral problems such as anxiety and temper outbursts <ref>Fermin Gutierrez MA, Mendez MD. Prader-Willi Syndrome. [Updated 2021 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-.</ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
[[Prader Willi Syndrome]] has a prevalence of 1 in every 1 in 20000 to 1 in 30000 births<ref name="pmid31684997">{{cite journal| author=Pacoricona Alfaro DL, Lemoine P, Ehlinger V, Molinas C, Diene G, Valette M | display-authors=etal| title=Causes of death in Prader-Willi syndrome: lessons from 11 years' experience of a national reference center. | journal=Orphanet J Rare Dis | year= 2019 | volume= 14 | issue= 1 | pages= 238 | pmid=31684997 | doi=10.1186/s13023-019-1214-2 | pmc=6829836 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31684997  }} </ref>. Females and males can be equally affected, and there is no difference between races and ethnicities<ref name="pmid31540108">{{cite journal| author=Bohonowych J, Miller J, McCandless SE, Strong TV| title=The Global Prader-Willi Syndrome Registry: Development, Launch, and Early Demographics. | journal=Genes (Basel) | year= 2019 | volume= 10 | issue= 9 | pages=  | pmid=31540108 | doi=10.3390/genes10090713 | pmc=6770999 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=31540108  }} </ref>. Most cases of Prader Willi syndrome are sporadic, but familial cases can present when the paternal genes carry a microdeletion in the imprinting center inherited from his mother<ref name="pmid26592417">{{cite journal| author=Butler MG, Manzardo AM, Forster JL| title=Prader-Willi Syndrome: Clinical Genetics and Diagnostic Aspects with Treatment Approaches. | journal=Curr Pediatr Rev | year= 2016 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 136-66 | pmid=26592417 | doi=10.2174/1573396312666151123115250 | pmc=6742515 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26592417  }} </ref>.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Molecular testing for DNA methylation
* [[Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization]] to investigate 15q11-q13
* Chromosomal microarray to determine presence of maternal disomy<ref name="pmid26592417">{{cite journal| author=Butler MG, Manzardo AM, Forster JL| title=Prader-Willi Syndrome: Clinical Genetics and Diagnostic Aspects with Treatment Approaches. | journal=Curr Pediatr Rev | year= 2016 | volume= 12 | issue= 2 | pages= 136-66 | pmid=26592417 | doi=10.2174/1573396312666151123115250 | pmc=6742515 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26592417  }} </ref>.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Hormone replacement<ref name="pmid22237428">Cassidy SB, Schwartz S, Miller JL, Driscoll DJ (2012) [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22237428 Prader-Willi syndrome.] ''Genet Med'' 14 (1):10-26. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/gim.0b013e31822bead0 DOI:10.1038/gim.0b013e31822bead0] PMID: [https://pubmed.gov/22237428 22237428]</ref>
* Cognitive and behavioral therapy<ref name="pmid30365815">{{cite journal| author=Passone CBG, Pasqualucci PL, Franco RR, Ito SS, Mattar LBF, Koiffmann CP | display-authors=etal| title=PRADER-WILLI SYNDROME: WHAT IS THE GENERAL PEDIATRICIAN SUPPOSED TO DO? - A REVIEW. | journal=Rev Paul Pediatr | year= 2018 | volume= 36 | issue= 3 | pages= 345-352 | pmid=30365815 | doi=10.1590/1984-0462/;2018;36;3;00003 | pmc=6202899 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30365815  }} </ref>
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold; text-align:center;" |[[Bardet-Biedl Syndrome]] <ref>Sperling LC, Cowper SE, Knopp EA. An atlas of hair pathology with clinical correlations. 2. Informa Healthcare; 2014. [Google Scholar]</ref> <ref name="pmid30237729">{{cite journal| author=Sant'Anna Addor FA, Donato LC, Melo CSA| title=Comparative evaluation between two nutritional supplements in the improvement of telogen effluvium. | journal=Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol | year= 2018 | volume= 11 | issue=  | pages= 431-436 | pmid=30237729 | doi=10.2147/CCID.S173082 | pmc=6136400 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30237729  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid26455063">{{cite journal| author=Vidal CI| title=Overview of Alopecia: A Dermatopathologist's Perspective. | journal=Mo Med | year= 2015 | volume= 112 | issue= 4 | pages= 308-12 | pmid=26455063 | doi= | pmc=6170065 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26455063  }} </ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* There is a massive amount of hair shedding that is triggered by physiologic or psychologic stress.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Although considered to be a relatively common condition, the precise [[prevalence]] of [[telogen effluvium]] remains unknown.  However, it is believed that it is more commonly seen in females than in males
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* [[Hair pull test]] followed by [[trichogram]] reveals numerous clubbed-shaped hairs; telogen count must exceed 20% for diagnosis.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* It could be an acute self-limiting form triggered by stressors such as crash diets, childbirth, febrile illness, or psychological stress.
* It may be chronic and present in association with female pattern hair loss.
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold; text-align:center;" |[[Borjeson Syndrome]] <ref>Otberg N, Shapiro J 2012. Hair growth disorders. In Fitzpatrick’s dermatology in general medicine, 8th ed (ed. Goldsmith LA, et al.). McGraw-Hill, New York [Google Scholar]</ref> <ref name="pmid24591533">{{cite journal| author=Qi J, Garza LA| title=An overview of alopecias. | journal=Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med | year= 2014 | volume= 4 | issue= 3 | pages=  | pmid=24591533 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a013615 | pmc=3935391 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24591533  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15113284">{{cite journal| author=Callender VD, McMichael AJ, Cohen GF| title=Medical and surgical therapies for alopecias in black women. | journal=Dermatol Ther | year= 2004 | volume= 17 | issue= 2 | pages= 164-76 | pmid=15113284 | doi=10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04017.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15113284  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid29265342">{{cite journal| author=Aguado Lobo M, Jiménez-Reyes J| title=Traction alopecia. | journal=Int J Dermatol | year= 2018 | volume= 57 | issue= 2 | pages= 231-232 | pmid=29265342 | doi=10.1111/ijd.13846 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi? dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=29265342  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid15113284">{{cite journal| author=Callender VD, McMichael AJ, Cohen GF| title=Medical and surgical therapies for alopecias in black women. | journal=Dermatol Ther | year= 2004 | volume= 17 | issue= 2 | pages= 164-76 | pmid=15113284 | doi=10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04017.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15113284  }} </ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Hair loss at regions of the scalp exposed to tension on hair follicles for a prolonged period of time in people who make tight hairstyles.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* [[Traction alopecia]] is more commonly seen among black populations with females being affected more often than males at a rate of about 31,000-32,000 per 100,000 women compared to about 2,300 per 100,000 men.
* [[Traction alopecia]] is seen in about 18,000 per 100,000 girls between the ages of 5.4 to 14.3 years based on a study of African-American girls.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Mostly a clinical diagnosis based on hair loss at areas of the scalp where tension on the hair is highest.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Early detection and switching to more loose hairstyles may reverse the condition, however, with prolonged tension on the scalp destruction of the hair follicles will occur, causing the condition to become irreversible.
|-
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #DCDCDC; font-weight: bold; text-align:center;" |[[Klinefelter Syndrome]] <ref name="pmid30725594">{{cite journal| author=| title=StatPearls | journal= | year= 2020 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=30725594 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref> <ref name="pmid12431130">{{cite journal| author=Pomeranz AJ, Sabnis SS| title=Tinea capitis: epidemiology, diagnosis and management strategies. | journal=Paediatr Drugs | year= 2002 | volume= 4 | issue= 12 | pages= 779-83 | pmid=12431130 | doi=10.2165/00128072-200204120-00002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12431130  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid19502982">{{cite journal| author=Kos L, Conlon J| title=An update on alopecia areata. | journal=Curr Opin Pediatr | year= 2009 | volume= 21 | issue= 4 | pages= 475-80 | pmid=19502982 | doi=10.1097/MOP.0b013e32832db986 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19502982  }} </ref> <ref>Sperling LC, Cowper SE, Knopp EA. An atlas of hair pathology with clinical correlations. 2. Informa Healthcare; 2014. [Google Scholar]</ref> <ref name="pmid22972730">{{cite journal| author=Ponka D, Baddar F| title=Wood lamp examination. | journal=Can Fam Physician | year= 2012 | volume= 58 | issue= 9 | pages= 976 | pmid=22972730 | doi= | pmc=3440273 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22972730  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid26455063">{{cite journal| author=Vidal CI| title=Overview of Alopecia: A Dermatopathologist's Perspective. | journal=Mo Med | year= 2015 | volume= 112 | issue= 4 | pages= 308-12 | pmid=26455063 | doi= | pmc=6170065 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26455063  }} </ref>
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* Presents in diverse ways such as ordinary scaling without any obvious hair loss which is considered to be a seborrheic form, a crusted or [[pustular]] form that may be localized or diffuse, a ‘black dot’ type that is characterized by tiny black dots within regions of [[alopecia]], an inflammatory mass called [[kerion]], and a round, bald, scaly patch where the follicular ostia are filled with keratinous debris.
* A unique feature of [[tinea capita]]s is the presence of post-auricular and cervical [[lymphadenopathy]].
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* It is more common in the pediatric population.
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* [[Potassium hydroxide]] preparation can be added to skin scrapings of affected areas in order to diagnose the condition. <ref name="pmid24591533">{{cite journal| author=Qi J, Garza LA| title=An overview of alopecias. | journal=Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med | year= 2014 | volume= 4 | issue= 3 | pages=  | pmid=24591533 | doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a013615 | pmc=3935391 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24591533  }} </ref>
* Wood's light can also be used in diagnosis as majority of [[Microsporum]] spp will appear bluish-green, occasionally dull yellow (Microsporum gypseum) and dull blue ([[Trichophyton]] schoenleinii).
| style="padding: 5px 5px; background: #F5F5F5;" |
* In the U.S., under 5% of cases will show [[fluorescence]].
* Possible complications of [[tinea capita]]s are [[kerion]], an [[abscess]] in the scalp, or [[favus]], another inflammatory form in which there is honeycomb destruction of the hair shaft.  Both are severe forms of the disease and can cause permanent scarring.
 
|}
 
 
==References==
==References==
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Ogechukwu Hannah Nnabude, MD

Overview

Adiposogenital dystrophy must be differentiated from other diseases that cause polyphagia, obesity, and a delayed puberty such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Bardet-Biedl syndrome, Borjeson syndrome and Klinefelter's syndrome.

Differentiating Adiposogenital Dystrophy from Other Diseases
Disease/Condition Clinical presentation Demographics/History Diagnosis Treatment
Adiposogenital Dystrophy

Partial destruction of hypothalamic nuclei resulting in hormonal dysfunction with obesity, growth retardation, and hypogonadism. Deep brain stimulation may also cause symptoms similar to adiposogenital syndrome [1] [2].

Prevalence is unknown, but it is more common in males [3] [4]

Diagnosis is based on visual field tests, hormonal assays, CT, MRI, autoimmune assays [5]

  • Diet and exercise
  • Radiation
  • Surgery, thermoablation, radiosurgery
  • Hormone replacement[6]
Prader-Willi Syndrome

It presents with hyperphagia, hypogonadism, truncal obesity, intellectual disability, growth delay, hypotonia, almond-shaped palpebral fissures, narrow frontal diameter, thin upper vermilion with downturned corners of the mouth behavioral problems such as anxiety and temper outbursts [7]

Prader Willi Syndrome has a prevalence of 1 in every 1 in 20000 to 1 in 30000 births[8]. Females and males can be equally affected, and there is no difference between races and ethnicities[9]. Most cases of Prader Willi syndrome are sporadic, but familial cases can present when the paternal genes carry a microdeletion in the imprinting center inherited from his mother[10].

  • Hormone replacement[11]
  • Cognitive and behavioral therapy[12]
Bardet-Biedl Syndrome [13] [14] [15]
  • There is a massive amount of hair shedding that is triggered by physiologic or psychologic stress.
  • Although considered to be a relatively common condition, the precise prevalence of telogen effluvium remains unknown. However, it is believed that it is more commonly seen in females than in males
  • Hair pull test followed by trichogram reveals numerous clubbed-shaped hairs; telogen count must exceed 20% for diagnosis.
  • It could be an acute self-limiting form triggered by stressors such as crash diets, childbirth, febrile illness, or psychological stress.
  • It may be chronic and present in association with female pattern hair loss.
Borjeson Syndrome [16] [17] [18] [19] [18]
  • Hair loss at regions of the scalp exposed to tension on hair follicles for a prolonged period of time in people who make tight hairstyles.
  • Traction alopecia is more commonly seen among black populations with females being affected more often than males at a rate of about 31,000-32,000 per 100,000 women compared to about 2,300 per 100,000 men.
  • Traction alopecia is seen in about 18,000 per 100,000 girls between the ages of 5.4 to 14.3 years based on a study of African-American girls.
  • Mostly a clinical diagnosis based on hair loss at areas of the scalp where tension on the hair is highest.
  • Early detection and switching to more loose hairstyles may reverse the condition, however, with prolonged tension on the scalp destruction of the hair follicles will occur, causing the condition to become irreversible.
Klinefelter Syndrome [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [15]
  • Presents in diverse ways such as ordinary scaling without any obvious hair loss which is considered to be a seborrheic form, a crusted or pustular form that may be localized or diffuse, a ‘black dot’ type that is characterized by tiny black dots within regions of alopecia, an inflammatory mass called kerion, and a round, bald, scaly patch where the follicular ostia are filled with keratinous debris.
  • A unique feature of tinea capitas is the presence of post-auricular and cervical lymphadenopathy.
  • It is more common in the pediatric population.
  • Potassium hydroxide preparation can be added to skin scrapings of affected areas in order to diagnose the condition. [17]
  • Wood's light can also be used in diagnosis as majority of Microsporum spp will appear bluish-green, occasionally dull yellow (Microsporum gypseum) and dull blue (Trichophyton schoenleinii).
  • In the U.S., under 5% of cases will show fluorescence.
  • Possible complications of tinea capitas are kerion, an abscess in the scalp, or favus, another inflammatory form in which there is honeycomb destruction of the hair shaft. Both are severe forms of the disease and can cause permanent scarring.


References

  1. ↑ Tuite PJ, Maxwell RE, Ikramuddin S, Kotz CM, Kotzd CM, Billington CJ; et al. (2005). "Weight and body mass index in Parkinson's disease patients after deep brain stimulation surgery". Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 11 (4): 247–52. doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2005.01.006. PMID 15878586.
  2. ↑ Romito LM, Scerrati M, Contarino MF, Iacoangeli M, Bentivoglio AR, Albanese A (2003) Bilateral high frequency subthalamic stimulation in Parkinson’s disease: long-term neurological follow-up. J Neurosurg Sci 47:119–128 Medline
  3. ↑ Babinski-fröhlich syndrome. Bissonnette B, & Luginbuehl I, & Marciniak B, & Dalens B.J.(Eds.), (2006). Syndromes: Rapid Recognition and Perioperative Implications. McGraw Hill. https://accessanesthesiology.mhmedical.com/content.aspx?bookid=852&sectionid=49517244
  4. ↑ Burfeind KG, Yadav V, Marks DL. Hypothalamic Dysfunction and Multiple Sclerosis: Implications for Fatigue and Weight Dysregulation. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2016 Nov;16(11):98.
  5. ↑ Sanchez Jimenez JG, De Jesus O. Hypothalamic Dysfunction. [Updated 2021 Aug 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-
  6. ↑ Sanchez Jimenez JG, De Jesus O. Hypothalamic Dysfunction. [Updated 2021 Aug 30]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-
  7. ↑ Fermin Gutierrez MA, Mendez MD. Prader-Willi Syndrome. [Updated 2021 Aug 11]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-.
  8. ↑ Pacoricona Alfaro DL, Lemoine P, Ehlinger V, Molinas C, Diene G, Valette M; et al. (2019). "Causes of death in Prader-Willi syndrome: lessons from 11 years' experience of a national reference center". Orphanet J Rare Dis. 14 (1): 238. doi:10.1186/s13023-019-1214-2. PMC 6829836 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31684997.
  9. ↑ Bohonowych J, Miller J, McCandless SE, Strong TV (2019). "The Global Prader-Willi Syndrome Registry: Development, Launch, and Early Demographics". Genes (Basel). 10 (9). doi:10.3390/genes10090713. PMC 6770999 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31540108.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Butler MG, Manzardo AM, Forster JL (2016). "Prader-Willi Syndrome: Clinical Genetics and Diagnostic Aspects with Treatment Approaches". Curr Pediatr Rev. 12 (2): 136–66. doi:10.2174/1573396312666151123115250. PMC 6742515 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 26592417.
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