Unlike the West, the Soviets developed and used live spore anthrax vaccines produced in Tbilisi, Georgia. This is known as the STI vaccine and its serious side effects restrict its use to healthy adults.<ref> ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak, Jeanne Guillemin, University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0=520-22917-7, pg 34</ref>
Unlike the West, the Soviets developed and used live spore anthrax vaccines produced in Tbilisi, Georgia. This is known as the STI vaccine and its serious side effects restrict its use to healthy adults.<ref> ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak, Jeanne Guillemin, University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0=520-22917-7, pg 34</ref>
== Biological warfare ==
Anthrax spores can and have been used as a [[biological warfare]] weapon. There is a long history of [[bioweapons]] research in this area. For example, in 1942 [[United Kingdom|British]] bioweapons trials severely contaminated Gruinard Island in Scotland with anthrax spores of the Vollum-14578 strain, thereby rendering it uninhabitable for the following 48 years.<ref>The Times Newspaper:[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1726745,00.html Saddam's germ war plot is traced back to one Oxford cow]</ref> The Gruinard trials involved testing the effectiveness of a submunition of an "N-bomb"—a biological weapon. Additionally, five million "cattle cakes" impregnated with anthrax were prepared and stored in Porton Down for attacks on Germany by the Royal Air Force as an anti-livestock weapon. However neither the cakes nor the bomb were ever used .
More recently, the Rhodesian government used anthrax against cattle and humans in the period 1978–1979 during its war with black nationalists.<ref>Southern African News Feature : [http://www.sardc.net/editorial/sanf/2001/iss21/specialreport.html the plague wars]</ref>
American military and British Army personnel are routinely vaccinated against anthrax prior to active service in places where biological attacks are considered a threat. The [[anthrax vaccine]], produced by BioPort Corporation, contains non-living bacteria, and is approximately 93% effective in preventing infection.
Weaponized stocks of anthrax in the US were destroyed in 1971–72 after President Nixon ordered the dismantling of US biowarfare programs in 1969 and the destruction of all existing stockpiles of bioweapons[http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/cwbw/default_index.htm]. Research continues to this day in the United States on ways to counter act possible bioweapons attacks.
=== Soviet accident: 2 April 1979 ===
Despite signing the 1972 agreement to end bioweapon production the government of the Soviet Union had an active bioweapons program that included the production of hundreds of tons of weapons-grade anthrax after this period. On 2 April 1979 part of the over one million people living in Sverdlovsk (now called Ekaterinburg, Russia), roughly 850 miles east of Moscow were exposed to a accidental release of anthrax from a biological weapons complex located near there. The first victim died after four days; ten victims died in eight days at the peak of the deaths and the last victim died six weeks later. In all at least 94 people were infected, of which at least 68 died. Extensive cleanup, vaccinations and extensive medical interventions managed to save about 30 of the victims. <ref> ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak, Jeanne Guillemin, University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0=520-22917-7, names of victims, pg 275-277</ref> Extensive cover-ups and destruction of records by the KGB continued from 1979 till 1992 when Russian President Boris Yeltsin finally admitted this anthrax accident. A combined Russian and United States team investigated this accident in 1992 as reported by Jeanne Guillemin in 1999 <ref> Guillmin, op. cit. </ref> [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plague/sverdlovsk/], [http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=18982]
There was a ceramics plant directly across the street from the biological facility (compound 19), where nearly all of the night shift workers became infected and most died. Since most of these people were men, there were suspicions by Western governments that the Soviet Union had developed a gender-specific weapon (Alibek, 1999). The government blamed the outbreak on the consumption of anthrax-tainted meat and ordered the confiscation of all uninspected meat that entered the city. They also ordered that all stray dogs be shot and that people not have contact with sick animals. There was also a voluntary evacuation and anthrax vaccination program established for people from 18–55 (Meselson et al., 1994).
To support the story, Soviet medical and legal journals published articles about an outbreak in livestock that caused GI anthrax in people who consumed the meat and cutaneous anthrax in people who came into contact with the animals. All medical and public health records were confiscated by the KGB (Meselson et al., 1994). In addition to the medical problems that the outbreak caused, it also prompted Western countries to be more suspicious of a covert Soviet Bioweapons program and to increase their surveillance of suspected sites. In 1986, the American government was allowed to investigate the matter and concluded that the exposure was from aerosol anthrax from a military weapons facility (Sternbach, 2002). In 1992, President Yeltsin admitted that he was "absolutely certain" that "rumors" about the Soviet Union violating the 1972 Bioweapons Treaty were true. The Russians, like the US and UK, agreed to submit information to the UN about their bioweapons programs but the Russian report omitted known facilities and never acknowledged their weapons program (Alibek, 1999).
=== Preparation of biowarfare-grade anthrax ===
Theoretically, cultivating anthrax spores can be done with minimal special equipment and a first-year collegiate [[microbiology|microbiological]] education. Fortunately, there are many obstacles to overcome to do this and doing this can be quite dangerous. To make large amounts of an aerosol form of anthrax suitable for biological warfare, requires extensive practical knowledge, training and highly advanced equipment.
Concentrated anthrax spores were used for bioterrorism in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, delivered by mailing postal letters containing the spores. Only a few grams of material were used in these attacks and it is unknown if this material was produced by a single individual or by a state sponsored bioweapons program. These events also spawned innumerable anthrax hoaxes. In response, the US Postal Service sterilized some of the mail using a process of gamma [[irradiation]] combined with the use of a unique and proprietary [[enzyme]] treatment formula supplied by Sipco Industries Ltd.<ref>USPS - DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND COMMUNICATIONS [http://www.usps.com/news/facts/lfu_021202.htm]</ref>
=== Theoretical "at home" Countermeasure ===
A scientific experiment performed by a high school student (later published in The Journal of Medical Toxicology) suggested that a common electric iron adjusted to the hottest setting (at least 400 degrees Fahrenheit) and used for at least 5 minutes should destroy all anthrax spores in a common envelope contaminated with anthrax.<ref>Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, February 2006 HAHA:[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/tribune-review/trib/pittsburgh/s_425621.html high school research findings]</ref>
== See also ==
== See also ==
Revision as of 15:38, 24 January 2012
Anthrax
Microphotograph of a Gram stain the bacterium Bacillus anthracis which causes anthrax.
An FDA-licensed vaccine, produced from one non-virulent strain of the anthrax bacterium, is manufactured by BioPort Corporation, subsidiary of Emergent BioSolutions. The trade name is BioThrax, although it is commonly called Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA). It is administered in a six-dose primary series at 0,2,4 weeks and 6,12,18 months; annual booster injections are required thereafter to maintain immunity. The injections are typically very painful, and may leave the area of injection with swelling; this area may be painful for several days.
Unlike the West, the Soviets developed and used live spore anthrax vaccines produced in Tbilisi, Georgia. This is known as the STI vaccine and its serious side effects restrict its use to healthy adults.[1]
↑ ANTHRAX, the investigation of a Deadly Outbreak, Jeanne Guillemin, University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0=520-22917-7, pg 34
Alibek, K. Biohazard. New York, New York: Dell Publishing, 1999.
"Bacillus anthracis and anthrax". Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology (University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Bacteriology). Retrieved June 17. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
"Anthrax". CDC Division of Bacterial and Mycotic Diseases. Retrieved June 17. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
"Focus on anthrax". Nature.com. Retrieved June 17. Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help); Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
Chanda, A., S. Ketan, and C.P. Horwitz. 2004. Fe-TAML catalysts: A safe way to decontaminate an anthrax simulant. Society of Environmental Journalists annual meeting. October 20–24. Pittsburgh.
Meselson, M. et al. (1994). "The Sverdlovsk Outbreak of 1979". Science 266(5188) 1202–1208
Sternbach, G. (2002). "The History of Anthrax". The Journal of Emergency Medicine 24(4) 463–467.
