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| ==Diagnosis== | | ==Diagnosis== |
| ==Treatment== | | ==Treatment== |
| ===Initial Treatment in All Patients===
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| The current American Heart Association-Advanced Cardiac Life Support (AHA-ACLS) guidelines advise the following be undertaken in all patients:
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| *Start CPR immediately
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| *Administer 100% oxygen to reverse [[hypoxia]]
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| *[[Intubate]] the patient
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| *Establish IV access
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| ===Reverse The Underlying Cause===
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| The mainstay of treatment is to reverse the underlying cause of PEA.
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| ====Hypovolemic Shock====
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| The most common reversible cause is [[hypovolemia]] (i.e. [[hypovolemic shock]]) which should be treated with [[IV fluids]] or [[packed red blood cell transfusion]].
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| ====Tension Pneumothorax====
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| Another readily identifiable and immediately treatable causes include [[tension pneumothorax]] (not uncommon in the ICU setting). Often in the ICU, this may occur in a ventilated patient, but conscious patients may complain of the sudden onset of [[chest pain]], there may be the sudden appearance of [[cyanosis]], [[tracheal deviation]], and [[absent breath sounds]] on the involved side of the chest. In patients on a ventilator, auto ̶ [[positive end-expiratory pressure]] (auto [[PEEP]]) and rupture of a bleb are more likely to occur. A thin needle can be inserted in the upper intercostal space to relieve the pressure and allow the lung to reinflate.
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| ====Cardiac Tamponade====
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| Suspect cardiac tamponade in the patient with recent chest trauma,neoplasm, or renal failure. These patients will complain of preceding sudden onset of [[chest pain]], [[palpitations]], [[breathlessness]] and [[lightheadedness]]. [[Elevated neck veins]] and a quiet muffled heart are present. There may be [[electrical alternans]] of the [[QRS complex]] and other intervals on the EKG.
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| ====Cardiac Rupture====
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| If the patient develops PEA several days after presenting with a ST elevation MI, then cardiac rupture should be considered particularly in an elderly female with hypertension.
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| ====Recurrent Myocardial Infarction====
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| If the patient develops PEA several days after presenting with a ST elevation MI, then recurrent MI should be considered.
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| ====Hyperkalemia====
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| Consider this in the patient with [[chronic renal insufficiency]] or in the patient on [[hemodialysis]].
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| ====Hypothermia====
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| "No patient is dead unless they are warm and dead." Confirm that a newly hospitalized patient is not [[hypothermic]] with a core temperature. Longer resuscitative efforts can be undertaken in the [[hypothermic]] patient.
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| ====Pulmonary Embolism====
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| New [[right axis deviation]] on the EKG suggests [[PE]].
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| ===Treatment in the Absence of an Identifiable Underlying Cause===
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| If an underlying cause for PEA cannot be determined and/or reversed, the treatment of pulseless electrical activity is similar to that for [[asystole]].<ref name="2010AHA" />
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| ===Epinephrine===
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| The mainstay of drug therapy for PEA is [[epinephrine]] 1 mg every 3–5 minutes. Higher doses of epinephrine can be administered in patients with suspected [[beta blocker]] and [[calcium channel blocker]] overdose. Otherwise high dose epinephrine has not demonstrated a benefit in survival or neurologic recovery.
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| ===Vasopressin===
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| Vasopressin can replace epinephrine as either the first or second dose of resuscitative pharmacotherapy.<ref name="pmid19384647">{{cite journal | author = Grmec S, Strnad M, Cander D, Mally S | title = A treatment protocol including vasopressin and hydroxyethyl starch solution is associated with increased rate of return of spontaneous circulation in blunt trauma patients with pulseless electrical activity | journal = International Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 311–6 | year = 2008 | month = December | pmid = 19384647 | pmc = 2657262 | doi = 10.1007/s12245-008-0073-8 | url = http://www.intjem.com/content/1/4/311 | issn = | accessdate = 2012-09-16}}</ref> <ref name="pmid19390921">{{cite journal | author = Kotak D | title = Comment on Grmec et al.: a treatment protocol including vasopressin and hydroxyethyl starch solution is associated with increased rate of return of spontaneous circulation in blunt trauma patients with pulseless electrical activity | journal = International Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–8 | year = 2009 | month = April | pmid = 19390921 | pmc = 2672974 | doi = 10.1007/s12245-008-0079-2 | url = http://www.intjem.com/content/2/1/57 | issn = | accessdate = 2012-09-16}}</ref>The dose of vasopressin is 40 U IV/IO.
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| ===Atropine===
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| Although [[atropine]] was previously recommended in the treatment of PEA/asystole, this recommendation was withdrawn in 2010 by the American Heart Association due to lack of evidence for therapeutic benefit.<ref name="2010AHA">{{cite journal |author=2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care |title=Part 8: Adult Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support|journal=Circulation |year=2010 |month=November |volume=122 |issue=18 Suppl |pages=S729–S767 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.970988|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/122/18_suppl_3/S729 |pmid=20956224}}</ref> If the pulse is < 60 beats per minute, atropine can still be administered in the full [[vagolytic]] dose of 1 mg IV q3-5min, up to 3 doses. After atropine administration, it can become difficult to assess neurologic recovery.
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| ===Na Bicorbonate===
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| Sodium bicarbonate at a dose of 1 meq per kilogram may be considered in this rhythm as well, although there is little evidence to support this practice. Its routine use is not recommended for patients in this context, except in special situations (e.g. preexisting [[metabolic acidosis]], [[hyperkalemia]], [[tricyclic antidepressant overdose]]).<ref name="2010AHA" />
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| ===CPR===
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| All of these drugs should be administered along with appropriate [[CPR]] techniques.
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| ===Defibrillation===
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| [[Defibrillation]] is '''''not''''' used to treat this rhythm, as the problem lies in the response of the myocardial tissue to electrical impulses.
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| ===Pacemaker Insertion=== | | ===Pacemaker Insertion=== |