PSMD9

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External IDsGeneCards: [1]
Orthologs
SpeciesHumanMouse
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26S proteasome non-ATPase regulatory subunit 9 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PSMD9 gene.[1][2]

Function

The 26S proteasome is a multicatalytic proteinase complex with a highly ordered structure composed of 2 complexes, a 20S core and a 19S regulator. The 20S core is composed of 4 rings of 28 non-identical subunits; 2 rings are composed of 7 alpha subunits and 2 rings are composed of 7 beta subunits. The 19S regulator is composed of a base, which contains 6 ATPase subunits and 2 non-ATPase subunits, and a lid, which contains up to 10 non-ATPase subunits. Proteasomes are distributed throughout eukaryotic cells at a high concentration and cleave peptides in an ATP/ubiquitin-dependent process in a non-lysosomal pathway. An essential function of a modified proteasome, the immunoproteasome, is the processing of class I MHC peptides. This gene encodes a non-ATPase subunit of the 19S regulator.[2]

Clinical significance

The Proteasome and its subunits are of clinical significance for at least two reasons: (1) a compromised complex assembly or a dysfunctional proteasome can be associated with the underlying pathophysiology of specific diseases, and (2) they can be exploited as drug targets for therapeutic interventions. More recently, more effort has been made to consider the proteasome for the development of novel diagnostic markers and strategies. An improved and comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiology of the proteasome should lead to clinical applications in the future.

The proteasomes form a pivotal component for the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS) [3] and corresponding cellular Protein Quality Control (PQC). Protein ubiquitination and subsequent proteolysis and degradation by the proteasome are important mechanisms in the regulation of the cell cycle, cell growth and differentiation, gene transcription, signal transduction and apoptosis.[4] Subsequently, a compromised proteasome complex assembly and function lead to reduced proteolytic activities and the accumulation of damaged or misfolded protein species. Such protein accumulation may contribute to the pathogenesis and phenotypic characteristics in neurodegenerative diseases,[5][6] cardiovascular diseases,[7][8][9] inflammatory responses and autoimmune diseases,[10] and systemic DNA damage responses leading to malignancies.[11]

Several experimental and clinical studies have indicated that aberrations and deregulations of the UPS contribute to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative and myodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease,[12] Parkinson's disease[13] and Pick's disease,[14] Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS),[14] Huntington's disease,[13] Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease,[15] and motor neuron diseases, polyglutamine (PolyQ) diseases, Muscular dystrophies[16] and several rare forms of neurodegenerative diseases associated with dementia.[17] As part of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS), the proteasome maintains cardiac protein homeostasis and thus plays a significant role in cardiac Ischemic injury,[18] ventricular hypertrophy[19] and Heart failure.[20] Additionally, evidence is accumulating that the UPS plays an essential role in malignant transformation. UPS proteolysis plays a major role in responses of cancer cells to stimulatory signals that are critical for the development of cancer. Accordingly, gene expression by degradation of transcription factors, such as p53, c-Jun, c-Fos, NF-κB, c-Myc, HIF-1α, MATα2, STAT3, sterol-regulated element-binding proteins and androgen receptors are all controlled by the UPS and thus involved in the development of various malignancies.[21] Moreover, the UPS regulates the degradation of tumor suppressor gene products such as adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) in colorectal cancer, retinoblastoma (Rb). and von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor (VHL), as well as a number of proto-oncogenes (Raf, Myc, Myb, Rel, Src, Mos, Abl). The UPS is also involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses. This activity is usually attributed to the role of proteasomes in the activation of NF-κB which further regulates the expression of pro inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-β, IL-8, adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1, P-selectin) and prostaglandins and nitric oxide (NO).[10] Additionally, the UPS also plays a role in inflammatory responses as regulators of leukocyte proliferation, mainly through proteolysis of cyclines and the degradation of CDK inhibitors.[22] Lastly, autoimmune disease patients with SLE, Sjogren's syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) predominantly exhibit circulating proteasomes which can be applied as clinical biomarkers.[23]

Gene expression levels of the proteasomal subunits (PSMA1, PSMA5, PSMB4, PSMB5 and PSMD1) were investigated in 80 patients with neuroendocrine pulmonary tumors and compared to controls. The study reviled that PSMB4 mRNA was significantly associated with proliferative activity of neuroendocrine pulmonary tumors.[24] However, a role of PSMA5 was also indicated in neuroendocrine pulmonary tumors. The PSMA5 protein has further been associated with the biosynthesis of conjugated linoleum acid (CLA) in mammary tissue.[25]

References

  1. ↑ Watanabe TK, Saito A, Suzuki M, Fujiwara T, Takahashi E, Slaughter CA, DeMartino GN, Hendil KB, Chung CH, Tanahashi N, Tanaka K (Jun 1998). "cDNA cloning and characterization of a human proteasomal modulator subunit, p27 (PSMD9)". Genomics. 50 (2): 241–50. doi:10.1006/geno.1998.5301. PMID 9653651.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Entrez Gene: PSMD9 proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S subunit, non-ATPase, 9".
  3. ↑ Kleiger G, Mayor T (Jun 2014). "Perilous journey: a tour of the ubiquitin-proteasome system". Trends in Cell Biology. 24 (6): 352–9. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2013.12.003. PMC 4037451. PMID 24457024.
  4. ↑ Goldberg AL, Stein R, Adams J (Aug 1995). "New insights into proteasome function: from archaebacteria to drug development". Chemistry & Biology. 2 (8): 503–8. doi:10.1016/1074-5521(95)90182-5. PMID 9383453.
  5. ↑ Sulistio YA, Heese K (Jan 2015). "The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System and Molecular Chaperone Deregulation in Alzheimer's Disease". Molecular Neurobiology. 53: 905–31. doi:10.1007/s12035-014-9063-4. PMID 25561438.
  6. ↑ Ortega Z, Lucas JJ (2014). "Ubiquitin-proteasome system involvement in Huntington's disease". Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 7: 77. doi:10.3389/fnmol.2014.00077. PMC 4179678. PMID 25324717.
  7. ↑ Sandri M, Robbins J (Jun 2014). "Proteotoxicity: an underappreciated pathology in cardiac disease". Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 71: 3–10. doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2013.12.015. PMC 4011959. PMID 24380730.
  8. ↑ Drews O, Taegtmeyer H (Dec 2014). "Targeting the ubiquitin-proteasome system in heart disease: the basis for new therapeutic strategies". Antioxidants & Redox Signaling. 21 (17): 2322–43. doi:10.1089/ars.2013.5823. PMC 4241867. PMID 25133688.
  9. ↑ Wang ZV, Hill JA (Feb 2015). "Protein quality control and metabolism: bidirectional control in the heart". Cell Metabolism. 21 (2): 215–26. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2015.01.016. PMC 4317573. PMID 25651176.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Karin M, Delhase M (Feb 2000). "The I kappa B kinase (IKK) and NF-kappa B: key elements of proinflammatory signalling". Seminars in Immunology. 12 (1): 85–98. doi:10.1006/smim.2000.0210. PMID 10723801.
  11. ↑ Ermolaeva MA, Dakhovnik A, Schumacher B (Sep 2015). "Quality control mechanisms in cellular and systemic DNA damage responses". Ageing Research Reviews. 23 (Pt A): 3–11. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2014.12.009. PMC 4886828. PMID 25560147.
  12. ↑ Checler F, da Costa CA, Ancolio K, Chevallier N, Lopez-Perez E, Marambaud P (Jul 2000). "Role of the proteasome in Alzheimer's disease". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1502 (1): 133–8. doi:10.1016/s0925-4439(00)00039-9. PMID 10899438.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Chung KK, Dawson VL, Dawson TM (Nov 2001). "The role of the ubiquitin-proteasomal pathway in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders". Trends in Neurosciences. 24 (11 Suppl): S7–14. doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01998-6. PMID 11881748.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Ikeda K, Akiyama H, Arai T, Ueno H, Tsuchiya K, Kosaka K (Jul 2002). "Morphometrical reappraisal of motor neuron system of Pick's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with dementia". Acta Neuropathologica. 104 (1): 21–8. doi:10.1007/s00401-001-0513-5. PMID 12070660.
  15. ↑ Manaka H, Kato T, Kurita K, Katagiri T, Shikama Y, Kujirai K, Kawanami T, Suzuki Y, Nihei K, Sasaki H (May 1992). "Marked increase in cerebrospinal fluid ubiquitin in Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease". Neuroscience Letters. 139 (1): 47–9. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(92)90854-z. PMID 1328965.
  16. ↑ Mathews KD, Moore SA (Jan 2003). "Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy". Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports. 3 (1): 78–85. doi:10.1007/s11910-003-0042-9. PMID 12507416.
  17. ↑ Mayer RJ (Mar 2003). "From neurodegeneration to neurohomeostasis: the role of ubiquitin". Drug News & Perspectives. 16 (2): 103–8. doi:10.1358/dnp.2003.16.2.829327. PMID 12792671.
  18. ↑ Calise J, Powell SR (Feb 2013). "The ubiquitin proteasome system and myocardial ischemia". American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 304 (3): H337–49. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00604.2012. PMC 3774499. PMID 23220331.
  19. ↑ Predmore JM, Wang P, Davis F, Bartolone S, Westfall MV, Dyke DB, Pagani F, Powell SR, Day SM (Mar 2010). "Ubiquitin proteasome dysfunction in human hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies". Circulation. 121 (8): 997–1004. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.904557. PMC 2857348. PMID 20159828.
  20. ↑ Powell SR (Jul 2006). "The ubiquitin-proteasome system in cardiac physiology and pathology". American Journal of Physiology. Heart and Circulatory Physiology. 291 (1): H1–H19. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00062.2006. PMID 16501026.
  21. ↑ Adams J (Apr 2003). "Potential for proteasome inhibition in the treatment of cancer". Drug Discovery Today. 8 (7): 307–15. doi:10.1016/s1359-6446(03)02647-3. PMID 12654543.
  22. ↑ Ben-Neriah Y (Jan 2002). "Regulatory functions of ubiquitination in the immune system". Nature Immunology. 3 (1): 20–6. doi:10.1038/ni0102-20. PMID 11753406.
  23. ↑ Egerer K, Kuckelkorn U, Rudolph PE, Rückert JC, Dörner T, Burmester GR, Kloetzel PM, Feist E (Oct 2002). "Circulating proteasomes are markers of cell damage and immunologic activity in autoimmune diseases". The Journal of Rheumatology. 29 (10): 2045–52. PMID 12375310.
  24. ↑ Mairinger FD, Walter RF, Theegarten D, Hager T, Vollbrecht C, Christoph DC, Worm K, Ting S, Werner R, Stamatis G, Mairinger T, Baba H, Zarogoulidis K, Huang H, Li Q, Tsakiridis K, Zarogoulidis P, Schmid KW, Wohlschlaeger J (2014). "Gene Expression Analysis of the 26S Proteasome Subunit PSMB4 Reveals Significant Upregulation, Different Expression and Association with Proliferation in Human Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Tumours". Journal of Cancer. 5 (8): 646–54. doi:10.7150/jca.9955. PMC 4142326. PMID 25157275.
  25. ↑ Jin YC, Li ZH, Hong ZS, Xu CX, Han JA, Choi SH, Yin JL, Zhang QK, Lee KB, Kang SK, Song MK, Kim YJ, Kang HS, Choi YJ, Lee HG (Aug 2012). "Conjugated linoleic acid synthesis-related protein proteasome subunit α 5 (PSMA5) is increased by vaccenic acid treatment in goat mammary tissue". Journal of Dairy Science. 95 (8): 4286–97. doi:10.3168/jds.2011-4281. PMID 22818443.

Further reading

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