Industrial and organizational psychology
Template:Tocright Robert G. Badgett, M.D.[1]
Industrial and organizational psychology is "the branch of applied psychology concerned with the application of psychologic principles and methods to industrial problems including selection and training of workers, working conditions, etc."[1]
Organizational culture and climate
Organizational culture is "beliefs and values shared by all members of the organization. These shared values, which are subject to change, are reflected in the day to day management of the organization"[2]. Components of culture have been described based on anthropology[3][4][5].
Organizational culture affects organizational effectiveness[6]
Differences between the states have been challenged and instead an A-factor has been proposed[7]. However, this assesrtion has been challenged[8].
Organizational states
Organizational commitment, while not strictly a state, has conceptual overlaps with engagement. Meyer and Allen's proposes a three-factor organizational commitment scale (OCS)[9]: affective, continuance, normative[10][11]. Engagement, especially dedication, is correlated with commitment[12].
Flourishing
Flourishing involves a positive state of psychological or social well-being and positive functioning (not necessarily learning) and addresses life in general rather than just work.[13] However, the concept is variably conceptualized thus making it difficult to study.[14]
Important contributors to flourishing focus on relationships with others at work and are[15]:
- Giving to others (due to impact on meaningfulness)
- Task assistance receipt (due to impact on job satisfaction)
- Friendship (due to positive emotions at work)
- Personal growth (due to impact on life satisfaction).
- Measurement
A six-point scale has been proposed[16][17].
A short scale to measure flourishing has been proposed.[18]
Thriving
Thriving has two components according to factor analysis[19]:
- Vitality. In this analysis, vitality is very similar to Schaufeli's Vigor subscale of the UWES-9 Engagement scale (see 'Engagement' below)
- Sense of learning or improvement
A separate body of research has emerged more recently that gives a broader definition to thriving, but does not cite the above research that has used factor analysis to identify core features[20].
Thriving is negatively correlated with burnout[19][21]; however, this benefit may be confined to employees with a high openness to experience[21]
Thriving is fostered among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional by a "employee involvement climate", defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization"[22].
- Measurement
Thriving can be measured[23].
Engagement
Engagement has three dimensions according to factor analysis[24]:
- Vigor (physical engagement)
- Dedication (effective engagement)
- Absorption (cognitive engagement)
Engagement depends on both organizational factors and personnel personality[25].
- Inadequate job resources are a cause as found in the job demands-resources model of burnout[26].
- Engagement is associated with organizational success[27][28], including in health care[29].
- Engagement is associated with leadership styles[30]
- Employee personality may account for 50% of variance in engagement[31]. Associated personality traits are positive affectivity, proactive personality, conscientiousness, and extraversion.
- Measurement
Engagement can be measured by several validated scales[32][33].
- Schaufeli's UWES-9 contains 9 question measuring the three scales vigor, dedication, and absorption.[32] The single highest loading question for each scale is:
- Vigor: "“At my work, I feel bursting with energy"
- Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job
- Absorption: "I am immersed in my work"
Satisfaction
Satisfaction with work is a "pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences”[34].
Burnout
Engagement may not simply be the opposite of burnout.
Antecedents
Regarding engagement and job satisfaction, meaningfulness of work strongly correlates[35]
The key antecedent of thriving is proposed to be self-determination theory, which includes autonomy, competence, and relatedness.[36] This emphasis links thriving to self-determination theory of Deci.[37] Studies have validated autonomy as an antecedent of thriving[38].
How to foster thriving has been reviewed[39][40][41] and includes:
- Providing decision-making discretion
- Sharing Information. Using transparency and open book management
- Minimize incivility at work
- Provide performance feedback
- Promote diversity
- Mastery of tasks. In 1908, the Yerkes-Dodson law[42], and later the concept of 'flow' by Csikszentmihalyi[43][44][45], both propose that engagement is strongest when a task is intermediate in difficulty.
Characteristics of individuals
The "Big Five personality traits" are[46][47][48]:
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness
- Extraversion
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
Of these, conscientiousness[49], openness to experience[49][21] and extroversion[49], may affect job performance. The effect may be complicated as open to experience may be positively related to individual and organizational proactivity but negatively related to team and organizational proficiency[48].
Based on a study of players in the National Basketball Association, narcissism reduces team performance[50].
Openness to experience
Openness to experience affects job performance[49][21].
Personality traits
According to a meta-analysis, "positive affectivity was by far the strongest predictor of engagement (31.10% of the explained variance; ρ = .62), followed by proactive personality (19.60%; ρ = .49), conscientiousness (14.10%; ρ = .39), and extraversion (12.10%; ρ = .40), whereas neuroticism, negative affectivity, agreeableness, and openness to experience were the least important"[51].
Regarding the many dimensions proposed below, recent effort has been made to consolidation[52].
Learning Mindset
Mindsets may affect outcomes[53][54]:
- Growth
- Fixed
Mindset may also be important for leadership[55].
The developer of mindset, Dweck, has expressed concerns about redirections of the mindset concept[56].
Learning and performance goal orientations
Three goal orientations have been proposed[57][53]:
- Learning goal orientation. "LGO reflects individuals’desire to improve their knowledge and master skills"[58]
- Performance‐prove goal orientation (PPGO). "PPGO describes individuals’ desire to display competence and outperform others"[58]
- Performance‐avoid goal orientation. "PAGO represents individuals’ desire to avoid appearing incompetent in achievement pursuits"[58]
" Individuals with higher levels of PPGO have decreased self-efficacy and performance when observing higher performing coworkers"[58].
Measurement scales are available at http://wiki.mgto.org/doku.php/goal_orientation_scale.
Regulatory focus
Two regulatory focuses are[59] [22]:
- Promotion focus is associated with "growth and developmental needs and involves striving for ideals, aspirations, and rewards through accomplishment". Also known has 'head in the clouds'.
- Prevention focus is associated with "needs for security and safety". Also known as 'feet on the ground'.
Regulatory focus can interact with leadership[60][61][62] .
Matching or fitting goals and focus may help achievement[63][64].
Calling
Calling is defined as[65]:
"A calling is a transcendent summons, experienced as originating beyond the self, to approach a particular life role in a manner oriented toward demonstrating or deriving a sense of purpose or meaningfulness and that holds other-oriented values and goals as primary sources of motivation."
Calling is:
- Positively association with engagement[66] and well-being[67].
- Negatively associated with burnout[68].
Characteristics of a job
An organization's mission statement is associated with performance[69].
Empowerment
Perception of empowerment by employees has four dimensions and can be measured with Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures[70]:
- Meaningfulness or purpose
- Competence or efficacy
- Self-determination
- I am able to make suggestions to improve the work of my team / department.
- I am involved in deciding on changes introduced that affect my work area / team / department
- Impact
Other surveys include:
- AHRQ/SOPS[71]
- We are encouraged to come up with ideas for more efficient ways to do our work
- We are involved in making decisions about changes to our work processes
- We are given opportunities to try out solutions to workflow problems
- U.K. National Health Survey[72]:
Empowerment affects thriving[73].
Moral distress and professional disonance
Moral distress[74] and professional disonance[75], as operationalized in research studies, is the report by healthcare personnel of participating in the provision of healthcare that the healthcare personnel perceives as inappropriate due to pressure from other health care professionals or administrators of families that the health care professional perceives as inappropriate due to being[74][76]:
- Unnecessary or futile due to family wishes[77]
- Suboptimal or insufficient. For example due to lack of funding, coordination, or continuity of care[78].
- Deceptive. For example, not obtaining consent, not discussing end-of-life care, giving false hope, or not disclosing intravenous medications[78].
Although the use of ‘distress’ in the label suggests a negative emotional state, it’s definition inferred by measurement scales developed and used in research is that moral distress is not a state but rather is the report of participation in events that a reasonable person would interpret as distressing.
Moral distress may also be called moral injury.
Moral distress may be more common in nurses and pharmacists than physicians[79][80][81][77][82][83]. The American Association of Critical-Care Nurses has created a position statement about moral distress, "The 4 A’s to Rise Above Moral Distress."[84]
Scales have been developed to measure moral distress[74][78]
For underlying causes, moral distress negatively correlates with perception of empowerment by healthcare personnel[85].
Moral distress has been studied for correlation with states of workforce wellbeing:
- Not correlated with engagement[86]
- Negatively correlated with job satisfaction[79]
- Positively correlated with burnout[79][80][81]; however, this has not been found in all studies[86][87]. In a separate study, moral distress correlated with the depersonalization component of burnout and just missed correlation with emotional exhaustion[88].
Money, pay, compensation
Financial incentives may help work when the output can be quantified, but may not help "complex, creative jobs."[89] Experiential awards may be better received than financial awards[90]. However, salaries may vary depending on accomplishment and impact[90].
Incentives may lead to knowledge hiding[91]. Organizational cynicism may lead to knowledge hiding[31].
Theory and models of antecedents, indicators, and outcomes
Yerkes-Dodson Law suggestions that the relationship between performance and arousal is bell-shaped so that performance may decrease with excessive arousal. This is similar to work by Csikszentmihaly[92].
The concept of "competence frustration" (versus "flow") suggests a similar bell-shaped relationship between task difficulty and engagement[93]
Self-determination theory
![](/images/7/76/SelfDeterminationTheory.png)
Self-determination theory was proposed in the early 1980s.[94] In this theory, autonomy, mastery, and purpose have been validated as components[95][96].
Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework
Job demands–resources (JD-R) framework[26] proposes that "resources energize employees and foster engagement, which, in turn, yields positive outcomes such as high levels of well-being and performance"[97]
This framework ties to the theory as components of the framework "are regarded as playing a motivational role, since they help fulfil human needs for autonomy, competence or relatedness".[97]
Social exchange theory (SET)
"According to SET, relationships between employees and employers are based on norms of reciprocity."[97]
Kahn's theoretical framework
Kahn posed that three key attributes of work are meaningfulness, psychological safety. and availability (availability is related to mastery) [98] and later validated by May[99] .
Culture and Climate
Employee involvement climate, defined as having employees who "mutually understand that they (a) possess the power to make decisions and act on them, (b) may access and share the informational resources needed to undertake those actions effectively, (c) have opportunities to update their knowledge in order to continually develop their effectiveness, and (d) are rewarded for improving the effectiveness of their work unit and organization" is associated with thriving among employees whose regulatory focus is promotional[22].
The role of work climate has been examined in studies based on complexity science[100][101], in order to predict why quality improvement projects succeed[102][103][104] and fail[105].
However, attributes of culture study may not be well based on theory and linked to the above settings.[106]
A reciprocal, beneficial relationship has been proposed between a positive work climate and mission goals[107]. This may be similar the Matthew effect[108].
Outcomes of positive organizational psychology
A systematic review reported that most studies found benefit on outcomes of health care organizations that have positive organizational psychology[109].
Interventions to promote positive organizational psychology
Available studies have been reviewed.[110] Studies using appreciative inquiry have been done.[111][112]
Public reporting has been used to try to improve organizational culture.[113][114] Recommendations for how to report have been proposed.[115][116]
Switching to a flatter organizational structure may help[117].
In the U.K. National Health Service, the Boorman report makes 20 recommendations<re>Boorman recommendations. NHS Employers</ref> Subsequent systemic review of interventions incorporating these recommendations has found benefit on the workforce[118].
Leadership
Best practices
In medicine, recommendations for high-performance work systems are available and include[119][120]:
- Engaging staff
- Acquiring and developing talent
- Empowering the frontline
- Aligning leaders
- Employee and Organizational outcomes
Surveys to solicit employee feedback
Serial surveying of employee opinion may be effective[121][122]. However, action in response to feedback is needed[123]. Thus, selective action may cause feedback to create a Matthew effect as leaders who are already successful may be disposed to act on the feedback[124].
NHS Staff Surveys
The NHS Staff Surveys have been administered since 2003.
Contents
Workforce states
Burnout is not measured with Maslach's survey[125]. A proxy question for the emotional exhaustion component is available:
- "During the last 12 months have you felt unwell as a result of work related stress."
Job satisfaction is not measured directly, but a proxy question is available:
- "I would recommend my organisation as a place to work."
Engagement, using three items from the UWES-9[126], has been measured since 2012:
- Vigor/vitality: "I look forward to going to work."
- Dedication: "I am enthusiastic about my job."
- Absorption: "Time passes quickly when I am working."
Thriving is not available although a validated scale is available[19]. The Staff Surveys has one related question:
- "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
Leadership tactics
Empowerment, using questions similar to Spreitzer's Measuring Empowerment survey which measures[70]:
- Meaningfulness or purpose
- Not directly asked. Related question is "The opportunities I have to use my skills."
- Competence or efficacy
- "I am able to do my job to a standard I am personally pleased with."
- Self-determination
- "I have a choice in deciding how to do my work."
- "There are frequent opportunities for me to show initiative in my role."
- Impact
- "I am able to make improvements happen in my area of work." and other, similar questions
Complexity leadership theory is partly measured although not using validated items from scales for complexity leadership theory (information gathering and information using)[127][128] and validated items from reciprocal learning[129][130][131] and Relational Coordination Scale[130].
- Generative (information gathering)
- "Is patient / service user experience feedback collected within your directorate / department?"
- "I receive regular updates on patient / service user experience feedback in my directorate / department"
- Administrative (information using)
- "The team I work in often meets to discuss the team’s effectiveness."
- "When errors, near misses or incidents are reported, my organisation takes action to ensure that they do not happen again."
- "Feedback from patients / service users is used to make informed decisions within my directorate / department"
- "I am confident that my organisation would address my concern" and similar questions
Reporting of workforce state to external stakeholders
Environmental, social and corporate governance (ESG) was defined in 2004 by U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan[132]. The "S" includes workforce.
Groups striving to implement these goals:
- United Nations: https://www.unpri.org/esg-issues/social-issues/employee-relations and https://www.unepfi.org/social-issues/social-issues/
- Global Reporting Initiative recommendations include reporting on:
- "Healthcare providers, including hospitals, nursing homes and home health care need to report on staffing ratios per patient and their turn-over rates"
- Global Sustainable Investment Alliance (GSIA): http://www.gsi-alliance.org/ including https://www.ussif.org/ in the U.S.
- International Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC): https://integratedreporting.org/
- International Standards Organization (ISO) Technical Committee on Healthcare organization management: https://www.iso.org/committee/6131376.html
- Motley Fool's Going for Great Returns and the Greater Good: The Motley Fool's ESG Investing Framework
- Workforce Disclosure Initiative (https://shareaction.org/wdi/) of ShareAction which has had successes described in the Wall Street Journal[133]
- Business Roundtable: https://opportunity.businessroundtable.org/ourcommitment/ Although the Business Roundtable's recent Statement on the Purpose of a Corporation has a section, "Investing in our employees" which includes a statement, "We foster diversity and inclusion, dignity and respect", there is not a specific statement on employee well-being.
- Impact-Weighted Accounts Project at Harvard Business School: https://www.hbs.edu/impact-weighted-accounts/
- MSCI Inc. (formerly Morgan Stanley Capital International) licenses indices to investors to measure ESG efforts of companies.
- Sustainability Accounting Standards Board: https://www.sasb.org/ includes metrics for:
- "(1) Voluntary and (2) involuntary turnover rate for: (a) physicians, (b) non-physician health care practitioners, and (c) all other employees"
One lever ESG reporting has is to guide proxy voting on ESG-related shareholder proposals[134].
Concerns have been made about the need to improve the quality of reporting to increase impact[135][136].
'Comply or explain' may be an option for implementing ESG reporting[137].
Human resource management
Human resource management practices are associated with hospital mortality[138][139].
Components of Human Resource Management can be divided[140]:
Technical Human Resource Management
- Benefits and services
- Compensation
- Recruiting and training
- Safety and health
- Employee education and training
- Retirement strategies
- Employee/industrial relations
- Social responsibility programs
- EEO for females, minorities, etc.
- Management of labor costs
- Selection testing
- Performance appraisal
- Human resource information systems
- Assessing employee attitudes
Strategic Human Rource Management
- Teamwork
- Employee participation and empowerment
- Workforce planning—flexihitity and deployment
- Workforce productivity and quality of output
- Management and executive development
- Succession and development planning for managers
- Advance issue identification/strategic studies
- Employee and manager communications
- Work/family programs'*
High-Performance Work Practices (HPWP)
HPWPs are human resource practices that[141][142][119]:
- "increase employees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs)"
- "empower employees to leverage their KSAs for organizational benefit"
- "increase their motivation to do so"
The following early study of HPWP have been found to affect employee outcomes (turnover and productivity) and measures of corporate financial performance[140]
Employee skills and organizational structures
- What is the proportion of the workforce who are included in a formal information sharing program (e.g.. a newsletter)?
- What is the proportion of the workforce whose job has been subjected to a formal job analysis?
- What proportion of non-entry level jobs have been filled from within in recent years?
- What is the proportion of the workforce who are administered attitude surveys on a regular basis?
- What is the proportion of the workforce who participate in Quality of Work Life (QWL) programs, Quality Circles (QC). and/or labor-management participation teams?
- What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to company incentive plans, profit-sharing plans, and/or gain-sharing plans?
- What is the average number of hours of training received by a typical employee over the last 12 months?
- What is the proportion of the workforce who have access to a formal grievance procedure and/or complaint resolution system?
- What proportion of the workforce is administered an employment tesi prior to hiring?
Employee motivation
- What is the proportion of the workforce whose performance appraisals are used to determine their compensation?
- What proportion of the workforce receives formal performance appraisals?
- Which of the following promotion decision rules do you use most often? (a) merit or performance rating alone; (b) seniority only if merit is equal; (c) seniority among employees who meet a minimum merit requirement; (d) seniority.
- For the five positions that your firm hires most frequently, how many qualified applicants do you have per position (on average)?
Assessing employee attitudes (AHRQ)
High-Performance Work Practices have been more recently proposed by the United States [Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality] (AHRQ)[143][119]. These include:
Subsystem #1: Engaging Staff
- Conveying mission and vision
- Information sharing
- Employee involvement in decision-making. Defined by the AHRQ as " Practices supporting employees' ability to influence the “decisions that matter” through mechanisms such as quality circles, process project teams, management/town hall meetings, and/or suggestion systems." "2007). Employee surveying and visibly acting on survey results also fit into this practice category."[119]
- Performance-contingent compensation
Subsystem #2: Acquiring and Developing Talent
- Rigorous recruiting
- Selective hiring
- Extensive training
- Career development
Subsystem #3: Empowering the Frontline. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices most directly affect the ability and motivation of frontline staff, clinicians in particular, to influence the quality and safety their care team provides."
- Employment security
- Reduced status distinctions
- Teams/decentralized decisionmaking
Subsystem #4: Aligning Leaders. Defined by the AHRQ as "These practices influence the capabilities of the organization's leadership in running and evolving the organization as a whole."
- Management training linked to organizational needs. Defined by the AHRQ as "Practices involving the alignment of leadership development resources with the strategic direction of the organization. Examples include use of core competency models and/or incorporation of goals to guide training, assessment, and feedback programs."
- Succession planning
- Performance-contingent compensation
A meta-analysis in 2006 has shown the effectiveness of HPWPs for five dimensions of organizational performance measures: [142]:
- productivity
- retention
- accounting returns
- growth
- market returns
High-Performance Management System (IHI)
More recently, the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI) developed the High-Performance Management System (HPMS)[144][145]. Key components are:
Primary Driver P1: Drive Quality Control
- S1: Standardization: Processes exist to help define and disseminate standard work (what to do and how to do it).
- S2: Accountability: A process is in place to review execution of standard work.
- S3: Visual Management: Process performance information is continuously available to synchronize staff attention and guide current activities.
- S4: Problem Solving: Methods are available for surfacing and addressing problems that are solvable at the front line, and for developing improvement capability.
- S5: Escalation: Frontline staff scope issues and escalate those that require management action to resolve.
- S6: Integration: Goals, standard work, and QI project aims are integrated across organizational levels and coordinated among units and departments.
Primary Driver P2: Manage Quality Improvement
- S7: Prioritization: Processes are established to help prioritize frontline improvement projects based on organizational goals.
- S8: Assimilation: Improvement projects are integrated into daily work.
- S9: Implementation: Frontline teams have support to move from QI back to QC, integrating the results of QI projects into standard processes.
Primary Driver P3: Establish a Culture of High-Performance Management
- S10: Policy
- S11: Feedback
- S12: Transparency
- S13: Trust
The IHI HPMS does not well map to antecedents of workforce engagement[98][146]:
- Membership and safety
( Availability and mastery
- Meaningfulness
- Autonomy or self-determination
Evidence of effectiveness
Several studies[139][147] and systematic reviews[142][148] report effectiveness.
Harmful practices
Pay for performance can reduce mental health of employees[149].
Overworked managers may treat employees unfairly[150]. Daily performance appraisal may be harmful[151].
Organizational decision making and conflict resolution
Organizational decision making is "the process by which decisions are made in an institution or other organization". [152]
Evidence-based recommendations have been made for decisions by small groups[153]:
- "Keep the group small when you need to make an important decision"
- "Choose a heterogenous group over a homogenous one (most of the time)"
- "Appoint a strategic dissenter (or even two)"
- "Collect opinions independently"
- "Provide a safe space to speak up"
- "Don’t over-rely on experts"
- "Share collective responsibility"
Consensus
Group members may overestimate the degree of consensus[154]. This may be due to difficulty in inferring the opinion of a teammember.
On the other hand, in a non-randomized study that did not account for baseline conflicts, voting was associated with dissatisfaction[155]. It may be likely that these teams chose to vote because of diversity of perspectives whereas teams that choose consensus had more baseline homogeneity. In addition, post-decision voice was not clearly used.
After voting on organizational procedures, postdecisional voice by the minority group can reduce negative impact on perceptions of fairness and task commitment by employees in the voting minority. [156] In the study by Hunton, postdecisional voice was solicited by asking voters "their thoughts and feelings" about the options debated. Participants were also told that their postdecisional voice was "noninstrumental" and would not change the choice[156].
Delphi technique
A Delphi technique may be more effective.[157]
The Delphi technique involves[158]:
- Identifying a research problem
- Completing a literature search
- Developing a questionnaire of statements
- Conducting anonymous iterative mail or e-mail questionnaire rounds
- Providing individual and/or group feedback between rounds
- Summarizing the findings
A modified Delphi had been developed by the RAND Corporation.[159][160]
The technique can vary regarding the anonymity of participants and the number of iterations or rounds.
The Delphi Technique can be conducted online either asynchronously via email[161] or synchronously using a software such as ExpertLens.[162][163]
Goal setting
In 1954, management by objectives was proposed[164] and has been sinced criticized[165].
The structure of goals has been proposed to be[166]:
- Specific
- Measurable
- Assignable
- Realistic
- Time-related
Having specific organizational goals helps workforce engagement[167]
Objectives and key results (OKR) was proposed as an approach in 1983[168].
Key performance indicators is another approach[169].
Objectives, goals, strategies and measures (OGSM) is another approach.
Stretch goals are inconsistency effective.[170]
There may be advantages to goals that are set by the workforce rather than management[171].
Goals developed with an outside view for reference class forecasting mayi avoid overy optimistic goals.[172][173]
Specific goals can create problems according to Goodhart's law.
The quality of goal setting can be measured with[174]:
- Goal Instrument for Quality (Goal-IQ) developed in 2009. 11 items[175]
- Goal and Action Plan Instrument for Quality (GAP-IQ) which updates the Goal-IQ. 17 items[174]
Point 11
(a) Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor. Substitute leadership.
(b) Eliminate management by objective. Eliminate management by numbers, numerical goals. Substitute leadership.
— Deming, W. Edwards., The Essential Deming: Leadership Principles from the Father of Quality (p. 141). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 0071790225
Deming suggests limiting measurement to identifying outliers.
Organizational change and innovation
The Cochrane Collaboration, in 2011, did not find evidence of methods that can improve organizational culture[176].
A survey for Practice adaptive reserve may[177] or many not[178] predict successful organizational change. Practive adaptive reserve is negatively associated with burnout[179][178]
Many studies have examined how to promote organizational change via patient-centered medical home in primary care by large projects such as the VA PACT[180][181][182] and the American Academy of Family Physician[183]. These methods have been systematically reviewed.
Innovation
Two types:
- Internal - adopting and adapting. Various issues affect knowledge sharing within an organization[184][185][186]. Recommendations to promote knowledge sharing are[186]:
- "Design work in a way that encourages sharing and promotes the right type of motivation. Give stimulating work that uses brain cells and give people autonomy. Don’t overload people (which creates time pressure). Be careful when creating too many 'dependencies' between workers as it can also create pressure."
- "Create a cooperative culture. Do not create competition through individual incentives or through labelling [sic] people as winners versus losers or publicly comparing them (for example, what messages do performance appraisals send?)."
- "Act as a role model and share your knowledge with others. Show you trust others to make good use of the knowledge you share with them. Also make sure you use the knowledge they share with you competently and with integrity."
- External - development
Scales to measure:
- Team Climate Inventory (TCI) has five scales: vision, participative safety, support for innovation, task orientation, interaction frequency[187]
- Hurley has five dimensions: Innovativeness, Participative Decision-Making, Power Sharing, Support and Collaboration, Learning and Development[188]
- Sisodiya developed a scale based on responses by managers[189]
External - incorporating external information
- My organization actively seeks out external sources of knowledge and technology (e.g., published research, regional and national meetings, professional societies, external colleagues) when developing new ideas[190]
Appreciative inquiry
Appreciative inquiry was developed in 1987 by Cooperrider and Srivastva[191]
Positive deviance
A positive deviance approach has been recommended to identify and disseminate best organizational practices[192][193] [194]Early description of this method was[192]:
- "Develop case definitions"
- "Identify four to six people who have achieved an unexpected good outcome despite high risk"
- "Interview and observe these people to discover uncommon behaviours or enabling factors that could explain the good outcome"
- "Analyse the findings to confirm that the behaviours are uncommon and accessible to those who need to adopt them"
- "Design behaviour change activities to encourage community adoption of the new behaviours"
- "Monitor implementation and evaluate the results"
Measuring
Overall measurement of learning and improvement can be measured with[23]:
- "I see myself continually improving". Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).
- "I continue to learn more as time goes by". Responses on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7=strongly agree).
Internal innovation due to reciprocal learning
- "I am frequently taught new things by other people I work with". Responses scored from one (strongly agree) to five (strongly disagree).[129]
External innovation due to environmental scanning.
- "the number of memberships in professional associations"[195]
Organizations
- Academy of Management (AOM), United States
- Association of Business Psychologists, UK
- Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (CSIOP), Canada
- College of Organisational Psychologists (COP), Australian Psychological Society, Australia
- Division of Occupational Psychology, British Psychological Society, UK
- European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP), Europe
- Institute of Work Psychology, Sheffield, England, UK
- Industrial Psychology Research Centre, Aberdeen, Scotland, UK
- Psychology and College of Business Alumni Club (PAC BAC)
- International Public Management Association for Human Resources Assessment Counsel (IPMAAC)
- Minnesota Professionals for Psychology Applied to Work (MPPAW), United States
- Division 1: Work & Organizational Psychology, The International Association of Applied Psychology, International
- NIOSH - Occupational Health Psychology, United States
- Organizational Behavior Management Network (OBM Network)
- Industrial Division, Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA), South Africa
- Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), United States
- Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), United States
- Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa (SIOPSA), South Africa
See also
- Leadership
- Job satisfaction
- Burnout (psychology)
- Psychometrics
- Social psychology
- Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology
References
- ↑ Anonymous (2024), Industrial psychology (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ↑ Anonymous (2024), Organizational culture (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ↑ Schein, E. H. (1984). Coming to a new awareness of organizational culture. Sloan management review, 25(2), 3-16.
- ↑ Schein, E. H. (1983). The role of the founder in creating organizational culture. Organizational dynamics, 12(1), 13-28.
- ↑ Kluckhohn, F. R., & Strodtbeck, F. L. (1961). Variations in value orientations. Oxford, England: Row, Peterson.
- ↑ Hartnell, CA (2019). "Supplemental Material for A Meta-Analytic Test of Organizational Culture's Association With Elements of an Organization's System and Its Relative Predictive Validity on Organizational Outcomes". Journal of Applied Psychology. doi:10.1037/apl0000380.supp. ISSN 0021-9010.
- ↑ Joseph, Dana L.; Newman, Daniel A.; Hulin, Charles L. (2010). "JOB ATTITUDES AND EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT: A META-ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCT REDUNDANCY". Academy of Management Proceedings. 2010 (1): 1–6. doi:10.5465/ambpp.2010.54492404. ISSN 0065-0668.
- ↑ Woznyj, Haley; Banks, George; Whelpley, Christopher; Batchelor, John; Bosco, Frank A. (2020). "Job Attitudes: A Meta-Analytic Review and the Creation of a Temporal Theoretical Framework". Academy of Management Proceedings. 2020 (1): 12492. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.2020.284. ISSN 0065-0668.
- ↑ Meyer, J. P.; Allen, N. J. (1991). "A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment". Human Resource Management Review. 1: 61–89. doi:10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-Z.
- ↑ Bar-Haim, Aviad (2017-09-21). "Measuring Organizational Commitment". Organizational Commitment. World Scientific. pp. 13–19. ISBN 978-981-323-215-0. Retrieved 2020-07-05.
- ↑ Bar-haim, Aviad (2019-04-12). Organizational Commitment: The Case Of Unrewarded Behavior. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-323-217-4. (Google Books)
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- ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen, et al. "A socially embedded model of thriving at work." Organization science 16.5 (2005): 537-549. doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0153
- ↑ Hone, Lucy Clare, et al. "Measuring flourishing: The impact of operational definitions on the prevalence of high levels of wellbeing." (2014): 62-90. doi:10.5502/ijw.v4i1.4
- ↑ Colbert, Amy E., Joyce E. Bono, and Radostina K. Purvanova. "Flourishing via workplace relationships: Moving beyond instrumental support." Academy of Management Journal 59.4 (2016): 1199-1223. doi:10.5465/amj.2014.0506
- ↑ VanderWeele TJ, McNeely E, Koh HK (2019). "Reimagining Health-Flourishing". JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.3035. PMID 30933213.
- ↑ VanderWeele TJ (2017). "On the promotion of human flourishing". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 114 (31): 8148–8156. doi:10.1073/pnas.1702996114. PMC 5547610. PMID 28705870.
- ↑ Diener, Ed, et al. "New well-being measures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings." Social Indicators Research 97.2 (2010): 143-156. doi:10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Porath, Christine; Spreitzer, Gretchen; Gibson, Cristina; Garnett, Flannery G. (2011-05-19). "Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement". Journal of Organizational Behavior. Wiley-Blackwell. 33 (2): 250–275. doi:10.1002/job.756. ISSN 0894-3796.
- ↑ Feeney, B. C., & Collins, N. L. (2015). A new look at social support: A theoretical perspective on thriving through relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 19(2), 113-147. doi:10.1177/1088868314544222
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Hildenbrand K, Sacramento CA, Binnewies C. "Transformational Leadership and Burnout: The Role of Thriving and Followers' Openness to Experience". J Occup Health Psychol. doi:10.1037/ocp0000051. PMID 27631555. Unknown parameter
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ignored (help) - ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Wallace, J. C., Butts, M. M., Johnson, P. D., Stevens, F. G., & Smith, M. B. (2016). A Multilevel Model of Employee Innovation: Understanding the Effects of Regulatory Focus, Thriving, and Employee Involvement Climate. Journal of Management, 42(4), 982–1004. doi:10.1177/0149206313506462
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Porath, Christine; Spreitzer, Gretchen; Gibson, Cristina; Garnett, Flannery G. (2012). "Thriving at work: Toward its measurement, construct validation, and theoretical refinement". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 33 (2): 250–275. doi:10.1002/job.756. ISSN 0894-3796.
- ↑ Schaufeli, Wilmar B.; Bakker, Arnold B.; Salanova, Marisa (2006). "The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire". Educational and Psychological Measurement. SAGE Publications. 66 (4): 701–716. doi:10.1177/0013164405282471. ISSN 0013-1644.
- ↑ Young, Henry R.; Glerum, David R.; Wang, Wei; Joseph, Dana L. (2018). "Who are the most engaged at work? A meta-analysis of personality and employee engagement". Journal of Organizational Behavior. doi:10.1002/job.2303. ISSN 0894-3796.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB (2001). "The job demands-resources model of burnout". J Appl Psychol. 86 (3): 499–512. PMID 11419809.
- ↑ Schneider, B., Yost, A. B., Kropp, A., Kind, C., & Lam, H. (2017). Workforce engagement: What it is, what drives it, and why it matters for organizational performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior. {doi:10.1002/job.2244
- ↑ Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.
- ↑ Bailey C, Madden A, Alfes K, Fletcher L, Robinson D, Holmes J; et al. (2015). "Evaluating the evidence on employee engagement and its potential benefits to NHS staff: a narrative synthesis of the literature". Health Services and Delivery Research. doi:10.3310/hsdr03260. PMID 26086062.
- ↑ Beck, R., & Harter, Ji. (2015, April 21). Managers Account for 70% of Variance in Employee Engagement. Available at: https://news.gallup.com/businessjournal/182792/managers-account-variance-employee-engagement.aspx
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Hu, Li‐tze; Bentler, Peter M. (1999). "Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives". Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal. 6 (1): 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118. ISSN 1070-5511.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 Schaufeli, W. B. (2006). The Measurement of Work Engagement With a Short Questionnaire: A Cross-National Study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(4), 701–716. doi:10.1177/0013164405282471
- ↑ Rich, B. L., Lepine, J. A., & Crawford, E. R. (2010). Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance. Academy of management journal, 53(3), 617-635 doi:10.5465/AMJ.2010.51468988
- ↑ Locke EA. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. In: Dunnette MD, editor. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology [Internet]. 1st ed. Chicago: Rand McNally; 1976 [cited 2016 Dec 24]. p. 1297–343. Available from: http://www.edwinlocke.com
- ↑ 1. Allan BA, Batz‐Barbarich C, Sterling HM, Tay L. Outcomes of Meaningful Work: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Management Studies [Internet]. [cited 2018 Nov 20];0(0). Available from:Error: Bad DOI specified!
- ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen M., and Christine Porath. "Self-determination as nutriment for thriving: Building an integrative model of human growth at work." The Oxford handbook of work engagement, motivation, and self-determination theory (2014): 245-258.
- ↑ Deci, Edward L., James P. Connell, and Richard M. Ryan. "Self-determination in a work organization." Journal of applied psychology 74.4 (1989): 580. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.580
- ↑ Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. doi:10.2307/256865
- ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen, Christine L. Porath, and Cristina B. Gibson. "Toward human sustainability: How to enable more thriving at work." Organizational Dynamics 41.2 (2012): 155-162. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.01.009
- ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen, and Christine Porath. "Creating sustainable performance." Harvard Business Review 90.1 (2012): 92-99.
- ↑ Spreitzer, Gretchen, Christine L. Porath, and Cristina B. Gibson. Thriving at Work: Why It's Important and How to Enable More of It HBR Leadership & Managing People Case Study. 2012
- ↑ Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit‐formation. Journal of comparative neurology and psychology, 18(5), 459-482.
- ↑ Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety (Vol. 721). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
- ↑ Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly; Csikszentmihalyi, Isabella Selega (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34288-9.
- ↑ Nakamura, Jeanne; Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (2014). "The Concept of Flow". In Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (ed.). Flow and the Foundations of Positive Psychology: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 239–263. ISBN 978-94-017-9088-8. Retrieved 2020-03-15.
- ↑ Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 417-440. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002221
- ↑ Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta‐analysis. Personnel psychology, 44(1), 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 Neal, A., Yeo, G., Koy, A., & Xiao, T. (2012). Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(2), 175-192. doi:10.1002/job.742
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 49.3 Barrick, M. R., & Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta‐analysis. Personnel psychology, 44(1), 1-26. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00688.x
- ↑ Grijalva, Emily; Maynes, Timothy D.; Badura, Katie L.; Whiting, Steven W. (2019). "Examining the "I" in team: A longitudinal investigation of the influence of team narcissism composition on team outcomes in the NBA". Academy of Management Journal. doi:10.5465/amj.2017.0218. ISSN 0001-4273. Summary
- ↑ Young, H. R., Glerum, D. R., Wang, W., & Joseph, D. L. (2018). Who are the most engaged at work? A meta‐analysis of personality and employee engagement. Journal of Organizational Behavior doi:10.1002/job.2303
- ↑ Gottfredson, Ryan K.; Reina, Christopher S. (2019). "Exploring why leaders do what they do: An integrative review of the situation-trait approach and situation-encoding schemas". The Leadership Quarterly: 101373. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101373. ISSN 1048-9843.
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 Dweck, Carol S. (1986). "Motivational processes affecting learning". American Psychologist. 41 (10): 1040–1048. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040. ISSN 1935-990X.
- ↑ Dweck, C. S. (2016). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballentine Books. ISBN 9780345472328
- ↑ Gottfredson R, Reina C. To Be a Great Leader, You Need the Right Mindset. Harvard Business Review. 2020 Available at
- ↑ Dweck, C. (2015). Carol Dweck revisits the growth mindset. Education Week, 35(5), 20-24. Available at: https://www.stem.org.uk/system/files/community-resources/2016/06/DweckEducationWeek.pdf
- ↑ Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 461–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461
- ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 Downes PE, Crawford ER, Seibert SE, Stoverink AC, Campbell EM (2020). "Referents or role models? The self-efficacy and job performance effects of perceiving higher performing peers". J Appl Psychol. doi:10.1037/apl0000519. PMID 32463258 Check
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value (help). - ↑ Higgins, E. Tory (1997). "Beyond pleasure and pain". American Psychologist. 52 (12): 1280–1300. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.12.1280. ISSN 1935-990X.
- ↑ Kark, Ronit; Van Dijk, Dina (2019). "Keep Your Head in the Clouds and Your Feet on the Ground: A Multifocal Review of Leadership–Followership Self-Regulatory Focus". Academy of Management Annals. 13 (2): 509–546. doi:10.5465/annals.2017.0134. ISSN 1941-6520.
- ↑ Johnson, Russell E.; King, Danielle D.; (Joanna) Lin, Szu-Han; Scott, Brent A.; Jackson Walker, Erin M.; Wang, Mo (2017). "Regulatory focus trickle-down: How leader regulatory focus and behavior shape follower regulatory focus". Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 140: 29–45. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.03.002. ISSN 0749-5978.
- ↑ Kark, Ronit; Van Dijk, Dina; Vashdi, Dana Rachel (2018). "Motivated or Demotivated to Be Creative: The Role of Self-Regulatory Focus in Transformational and Transactional Leadership Processes". Applied Psychology. 67 (1): 186–224. doi:10.1111/apps.12122. ISSN 0269-994X.
- ↑ Grant, Heidi; Higgins, E. Tory (2013-03-01). "Do You Play to Win—or to Not Lose?". Harvard Business Review (March 2013). ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
- ↑ Plessner, Henning; Unkelbach, Christian; Memmert, Daniel; Baltes, Anna; Kolb, Andreas (2009-01-01). "Regulatory fit as a determinant of sport performance: How to succeed in a soccer penalty-shooting". Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 10 (1): 108–115. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.02.001. ISSN 1469-0292. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
- ↑ Dik, B. J., & Duffy, R. D. (2009). Calling and Vocation at Work: Definitions and Prospects for Research and Practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 37(3), 424–450. doi:10.1177/0011000008316430
- ↑ Chen, J., May, D. R., Schwoerer, C. E., & Augelli, B. (2018). Exploring the Boundaries of Career Calling: The Moderating Roles of Procedural Justice and Psychological Safety. Journal of Career Development, 45(2), 103–116. doi:10.1177/0894845316671214
- ↑ Yoon, J. D., Daley, B. M., & Curlin, F. A. (2017). The Association Between a Sense of Calling and Physician Well-Being: A National Study of Primary Care Physicians and Psychiatrists. Academic Psychiatry, 41(2), 167–173. doi:10.1007/s40596-016-0487-1
- ↑ Jager AJ, Tutty MA, Kao AC (2017). "Association Between Physician Burnout and Identification With Medicine as a Calling". Mayo Clin Proc. 92 (3): 415–422. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2016.11.012. PMID 28189341.
- ↑ Hamnett, Nathan; Patel, Naomi; Nelson, Kathryn; Harrison, Tom; White, Nicholas (2018). "How do explicitly stated hospital trust values relate to their CQC ratings?". BMJ Leader. 2 (2): 68–70. doi:10.1136/leader-2017-000062. ISSN 2398-631X.
- ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Spreitzer, Gretchen M. (1995). "Psychological Empowerment in the Workplace: Dimensions, Measurement, and Validation". Academy of Management Journal. 38 (5): 1442–1465. doi:10.5465/256865. ISSN 0001-4273.
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value (help). - ↑ Walumbwa, F. O., Muchiri, M. K., Misati, E., Wu, C., & Meiliani, M. (2016). Fired Up To Perform: A Multilevel Examination of Antecedents and Consequences of Thriving At Work. Academy of Management Proceedings, 2016(1), 10494. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.2016.79
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- ↑ Agarwal SD, Pabo E, Rozenblum R, Sherritt KM (2020). "Professional Dissonance and Burnout in Primary Care: A Qualitative Study". JAMA Intern Med. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.6326. PMID 31904796.
- ↑ Moss M, Good VS, Gozal D, Kleinpell R, Sessler CN (2016). "A Critical Care Societies Collaborative Statement: Burnout Syndrome in Critical Care Health-care Professionals. A Call for Action". Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 194 (1): 106–13. doi:10.1164/rccm.201604-0708ST. PMID 27367887.
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- ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 Johnson-Coyle L, Opgenorth D, Bellows M, Dhaliwal J, Richardson-Carr S, Bagshaw SM (2016). "Moral distress and burnout among cardiovascular surgery intensive care unit healthcare professionals: A prospective cross-sectional survey". Can J Crit Care Nurs. 27 (4): 27–36. PMID 29786979.
- ↑ 80.0 80.1 Whitehead PB, Herbertson RK, Hamric AB, Epstein EG, Fisher JM (2015). "Moral distress among healthcare professionals: report of an institution-wide survey". J Nurs Scholarsh. 47 (2): 117–25. doi:10.1111/jnu.12115. PMID 25440758.
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- ↑ Houston S, Casanova MA, Leveille M, Schmidt KL, Barnes SA, Trungale KR; et al. (2013). "The intensity and frequency of moral distress among different healthcare disciplines". J Clin Ethics. 24 (2): 98–112. PMID 23923809.
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- ↑ Sajjadi S, Norena M, Wong H, Dodek P (2017). "Moral distress and burnout in internal medicine residents". Can Med Educ J. 8 (1): e36–e43. PMC 5344066. PMID 28344714.
- ↑ Gerdeman, D (2019). Forget Cash. Here Are Better Ways to Motivate Employees. Harvard Working Knowledge.
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- ↑
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- ↑ Fang, H., He, B., Fu, H., & Meng, L. (2017). Being eager to prove oneself: U-shaped relationship between competence frustration and intrinsic motivation in another activity. Frontiers in psychology, 8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02123
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- ↑ Broeck A, Vansteenkiste M, Witte H, Soenens B, Lens W. Capturing autonomy, competence, and relatedness at work: Construction and initial validation of the Work‐related Basic Need Satisfaction scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 2010 Dec 1;83(4):981-1002. doi:10.1348/096317909X481382
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