Diabetes mellitus type 1 risk factors
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Vishal Devarkonda, M.B.B.S[2]Anahita Deylamsalehi, M.D.[3]
Overview
Risk factors for type 1 Diabetes Mellitus include family history, genetics, geography, congenital rubella infection, cesarean infection, higher birth weight, older maternal age, low maternal intake of vegetables, entero-viral infection, frequent respiratory or enteric infections, early exposure to cereals, root vegetables, eggs and cow's milk, infant weight gain, persistent or recurrent entero-viral infections, overweight or increased height velocity, high glycemic load, fructose intake, dietary nitrates or nitrosamines, puberty, psychological stress and low vitamin D levels.
Risk Factors
- Risk factors for type 1 Diabetes Mellitus include:[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
- Family history:
- There is a risk of developing type 1 diabetes mellitus in close relatives of a patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus.
- Children who have siblings with type 1 diabetes mellitus started before age of 5 have 3-5 fold higher chance of type 1 diabetes mellitus development before 20 years old, compared to children whose siblings had type 1 diabetes mellitus between 5-15 years old.
- Offspring of an affected father have 7% chance of type 1 diabetes mellitus, whereas when mother is affected there is only 2% to 3% risk of type 1 diabetes mellitus development in offspring.
- Genetics: The presence of certain genes associated with an increased risk of developing type 1 diabetes mellitus.
- Geography: Risk is elevated with increased distance from equator
- Congenital rubella infection
- Maternal entero-viral infection
- Cesarean section
- Higher birth weight
- Older maternal age
- Low maternal intake of vegetables
- Radiation exposure
- A study done on Gomel city population with radiation exposure after the Chernobyl incident demonstrated increased incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus.
- Enteroviral infection
- Frequent respiratory or enteric infections
- Abnormal microbiome
- Early exposure to cereals, root vegetables, eggs and cow's milk
- Infant weight gain
- Serious life events
- Persistent or recurrent entero-viral infections
- Overweight or increased height velocity
- High glycemic load and fructose intake
- Dietary nitrates or nitrosamines
- Puberty
- Steroid treatment
- Insulin resistance
- Psychological stress:
- There are evidences supporting that normal weighted patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus who experienced moderate to high stress had significantly higher mean blood glucose concentrations, compared to those who reported minimal psychological stress. This relationship could be related to less dietary or therapy adherence in diabetic patients who encountered high stress level.
- Low vitamin D levels
- SARS-CoV-2 (a subtype of coronavirus that causes coronavirus disease 2019)
- Possible β cell damage caused by SARS-CoV-2 can cause to insulin deficiency.
- Some patients with COVID-19 have been presented with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).
- In one study prevalence of Cannabis use was 30% among type 1 diabetic patients and was related to higher chance of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), possibly due to increased intestinal motility and hyperemesis. Nevertheless, further investigations should be done to confirm cannabis use as a risk factor of type 1 diabetes mellitus and DKA.
- Family history:
References
- ↑ Redondo MJ, Yu L, Hawa M, et al. Late progression to type 1 diabetes of discordant twins of patients with type 1 diabetes: Combined analysis of two twin series (United States and United Kingdom). Diabetes 1999; 48:780.
- ↑ Dahlquist GG, Patterson C, Soltesz G. Perinatal risk factors for childhood type 1 diabetes in Europe. The EURODIAB Substudy 2 Study Group. Diabetes Care 1999; 22:1698.
- ↑ Dahlquist GG, Pundziūte-Lyckå A, Nyström L, et al. Birthweight and risk of type 1 diabetes in children and young adults: a population-based register study. Diabetologia 2005; 48:1114.
- ↑ Stene LC, Joner G, Norwegian Childhood Diabetes Study Group. Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: a large, population-based, case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78:1128.
- ↑ Yoon JW, Austin M, Onodera T, Notkins AL. Isolation of a virus from the pancreas of a child with diabetic ketoacidosis. N Engl J Med 1979; 300:1173.
- ↑ Dotta F, Censini S, van Halteren AG, et al. Coxsackie B4 virus infection of beta cells and natural killer cell insulitis in recent-onset type 1 diabetic patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:5115.
- ↑ Menser MA, Forrest JM, Bransby RD. Rubella infection and diabetes mellitus. Lancet 1978; 1:57.
- ↑ Hyöty H, Taylor KW. The role of viruses in human diabetes. Diabetologia 2002; 45:1353.
- ↑ Hummel M, Füchtenbusch M, Schenker M, Ziegler AG. No major association of breast-feeding, vaccinations, and childhood viral diseases with early islet autoimmunity in the German BABYDIAB Study. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:969.
- ↑ Cainelli F, Manzaroli D, Renzini C, et al. Coxsackie B virus-induced autoimmunity to GAD does not lead to type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:1021.
- ↑ Elliott RB, Harris DP, Hill JP, et al. Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus and cow milk: casein variant consumption. Diabetologia 1999; 42:292.
- ↑ Norris JM, Barriga K, Klingensmith G, et al. Timing of initial cereal exposure in infancy and risk of islet autoimmunity. JAMA 2003; 290:1713.
- ↑ Parslow RC, McKinney PA, Law GR, et al. Incidence of childhood diabetes mellitus in Yorkshire, northern England, is associated with nitrate in drinking water: an ecological analysis. Diabetologia 1997; 40:550.
- ↑ Ahola, Aila J.; Forsblom, Carol; Harjutsalo, Valma; Groop, Per-Henrik (2020). "Perceived Stress and Adherence to the Dietary Recommendations and Blood Glucose Levels in Type 1 Diabetes". Journal of Diabetes Research. 2020: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2020/3548520. ISSN 2314-6745.
- ↑ Zalutskaya, A.; Mokhort, T.; Garmaev, D.; Bornstein, S. R. (2004). "Did the Chernobyl incident cause an increase in Type 1 diabetes mellitus incidence in children and adolescents?". Diabetologia. 47 (1): 147–148. doi:10.1007/s00125-003-1271-9. ISSN 0012-186X.
- ↑ Maahs DM, West NA, Lawrence JM, Mayer-Davis EJ (2010). "Epidemiology of type 1 diabetes". Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 39 (3): 481–97. doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2010.05.011. PMC 2925303. PMID 20723815.
- ↑ Hämäläinen AM, Knip M (2002). "Autoimmunity and familial risk of type 1 diabetes". Curr Diab Rep. 2 (4): 347–53. doi:10.1007/s11892-002-0025-2. PMID 12643195.
- ↑ Bornstein SR, Rubino F, Khunti K, Mingrone G, Hopkins D, Birkenfeld AL; et al. (2020). "Practical recommendations for the management of diabetes in patients with COVID-19". Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 8 (6): 546–550. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(20)30152-2. PMC 7180013 Check
|pmc=value (help). PMID 32334646 Check|pmid=value (help). - ↑ Akturk, Halis K.; Taylor, Daniel D.; Camsari, Ulas M.; Rewers, Amanda; Kinney, Gregory L.; Shah, Viral N. (2019). "Association Between Cannabis Use and Risk for Diabetic Ketoacidosis in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes". JAMA Internal Medicine. 179 (1): 115. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2018.5142. ISSN 2168-6106.