Ureaplasma urealyticum pathophysiology: Difference between revisions
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==Overview== | ==Overview== | ||
Ureaplasma species have been associated with several conditions such as preterm delivery | Ureaplasma species have been associated with several conditions such as preterm delivery, [[perinatal mortality]], [[Neonatal sepsis|neonatal infection]], and [[urogenital]] infection in adults.<ref name="pmid18577163 ">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109084">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Schelonka RL, Xiao L, Grigsby PL, Novy MJ| title=Congenital and opportunistic infections: Ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis. | journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med | year= 2009 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 190-9 | pmid=19109084 | doi=10.1016/j.siny.2008.11.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109084 }} </ref> Stimulation of host [[inflammatory responses]] by Ureaplasma has been implicated in most of these conditions.<ref name="pmid18577163 ">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109084">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Schelonka RL, Xiao L, Grigsby PL, Novy MJ| title=Congenital and opportunistic infections: Ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis. | journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med | year= 2009 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 190-9 | pmid=19109084 | doi=10.1016/j.siny.2008.11.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109084 }} </ref><ref name="pmid24047884">{{cite journal| author=Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T et al.| title=Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men. | journal=Int J STD AIDS | year= 2014 | volume= 25 | issue= 4 | pages= 294-8 | pmid=24047884 | doi=10.1177/0956462413504556 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24047884 }} </ref> | ||
==Pathophysiology== | ==Pathophysiology== | ||
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====The role of Ureaplasma infection in preterm delivery==== | ====The role of Ureaplasma infection in preterm delivery==== | ||
* Ureaplasma species are considered to be of low virulence, and 40-80% of healthy women have Ureaplasma species (''U. urealyticum'' and ''U. parvum'') in their [[Urogenital tract|genital tract]].<ref name="pmid26518581">{{cite journal| author=Resch B, Gutmann C, Reiterer F, Luxner J, Urlesberger B| title=Neonatal Ureaplasma urealyticum colonization increases pulmonary and cerebral morbidity despite treatment with macrolide antibiotics. | journal=Infection | year= 2016 | volume= 44 | issue= 3 | pages= 323-7 | pmid=26518581 | doi=10.1007/s15010-015-0858-7 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26518581 }} </ref><ref name="pmid21258263">{{cite journal| author=Okogbule-Wonodi AC, Gross GW, Sun CC, Agthe AG, Xiao L, Waites KB et al.| title=Necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with ureaplasma colonization in preterm infants. | journal=Pediatr Res | year= 2011 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 Pt 1 | pages= 442-7 | pmid=21258263 | doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182111827 | pmc=3968774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21258263 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18596706">{{cite journal| author=Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD| title=Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=J Perinatol | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 759-65 | pmid=18596706 | doi=10.1038/jp.2008.98 | pmc=5334544 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18596706 }} </ref> | * Ureaplasma species are considered to be of low virulence, and 40-80% of healthy women have Ureaplasma species (''U. urealyticum'' and ''U. parvum'') in their [[Urogenital tract|genital tract]].<ref name="pmid26518581">{{cite journal| author=Resch B, Gutmann C, Reiterer F, Luxner J, Urlesberger B| title=Neonatal Ureaplasma urealyticum colonization increases pulmonary and cerebral morbidity despite treatment with macrolide antibiotics. | journal=Infection | year= 2016 | volume= 44 | issue= 3 | pages= 323-7 | pmid=26518581 | doi=10.1007/s15010-015-0858-7 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26518581 }} </ref><ref name="pmid21258263">{{cite journal| author=Okogbule-Wonodi AC, Gross GW, Sun CC, Agthe AG, Xiao L, Waites KB et al.| title=Necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with ureaplasma colonization in preterm infants. | journal=Pediatr Res | year= 2011 | volume= 69 | issue= 5 Pt 1 | pages= 442-7 | pmid=21258263 | doi=10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182111827 | pmc=3968774 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21258263 }} </ref><ref name="pmid8399903">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH| title=Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 Suppl 1 | issue= | pages= S131-5 | pmid=8399903 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8399903 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18596706">{{cite journal| author=Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD| title=Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage. | journal=J Perinatol | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 759-65 | pmid=18596706 | doi=10.1038/jp.2008.98 | pmc=5334544 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18596706 }} </ref> | ||
* Controversial evidence exists supporting the association between genital colonization by Ureaplasma species and complications of pregnancy such as [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | * Controversial evidence exists supporting the association between genital colonization by Ureaplasma species and complications of pregnancy such as [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163 ">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | ||
* [[Lactobacilli]] help maintain the vaginal acidity, preventing the invasion of [[bacteria]]. However, the [[urease]] activity of Ureaplasma species such as ''U. urealyticum'' increases the pH of the vagina via the hydrolysis of urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia. This increases the susceptibility to mixed infection with other [[pathogenic bacteria]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | * [[Lactobacilli]] help maintain the vaginal acidity, preventing the invasion of [[bacteria]]. However, the [[urease]] activity of Ureaplasma species such as ''U. urealyticum'' increases the pH of the vagina via the hydrolysis of urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia. This increases the susceptibility to mixed infection with other [[pathogenic bacteria]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | ||
* Ureaplasma and other [[pathogenic bacteria]] induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] such as [[IL-1]], [[TNF-α]], [[IL-6]], and [[chemokines]] such as [[IL-8]], leading to the recruitment of [[leukocytes]] and production of [[prostaglandins]].<ref name="pmid19109084">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Schelonka RL, Xiao L, Grigsby PL, Novy MJ| title=Congenital and opportunistic infections: Ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis. | journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med | year= 2009 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 190-9 | pmid=19109084 | doi=10.1016/j.siny.2008.11.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109084 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18577163"/> Uterine stimulation by [[prostaglandins]] result in [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109084"/> | * Ureaplasma and other [[pathogenic bacteria]] induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory [[cytokines]] such as [[IL-1]], [[TNF-α]], [[IL-6]], and [[chemokines]] such as [[IL-8]], leading to the recruitment of [[leukocytes]] and production of [[prostaglandins]].<ref name="pmid19109084">{{cite journal| author=Waites KB, Schelonka RL, Xiao L, Grigsby PL, Novy MJ| title=Congenital and opportunistic infections: Ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis. | journal=Semin Fetal Neonatal Med | year= 2009 | volume= 14 | issue= 4 | pages= 190-9 | pmid=19109084 | doi=10.1016/j.siny.2008.11.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19109084 }} </ref><ref name="pmid18577163 ">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> Uterine stimulation by [[prostaglandins]] result in [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19109084"/> | ||
* Ureaplasmal lipoprotein also induce [[apoptosis]], and it is possible that the apoptotic cells sustain [[Urogenital tract|genital tract]] [[inflammation]] which promote [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | * Ureaplasmal lipoprotein also induce [[apoptosis]], and it is possible that the apoptotic cells sustain [[Urogenital tract|genital tract]] [[inflammation]] which promote [[Preterm birth|preterm delivery]].<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | ||
* Studies have also shown a higher rate of vaginal colonization by Ureaplasma species in women with [[Preterm birth|preterm deliveries]] compared to those with full-term deliveries.<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | * Studies have also shown a higher rate of vaginal colonization by Ureaplasma species in women with [[Preterm birth|preterm deliveries]] compared to those with full-term deliveries.<ref name="pmid18577163">{{cite journal| author=Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H et al.| title=Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses. | journal=Microbiol Immunol | year= 2008 | volume= 52 | issue= 6 | pages= 297-304 | pmid=18577163 | doi=10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18577163 }} </ref> | ||
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[[Category:Emergency mdicine]] | |||
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[[Category:Infectious disease]] | |||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fatimo Biobaku M.B.B.S [2]
Overview
Ureaplasma species have been associated with several conditions such as preterm delivery, perinatal mortality, neonatal infection, and urogenital infection in adults.[1][2] Stimulation of host inflammatory responses by Ureaplasma has been implicated in most of these conditions.[1][2][3]
Pathophysiology
Pathogenesis
The role of Ureaplasma infection in preterm delivery
- Ureaplasma species are considered to be of low virulence, and 40-80% of healthy women have Ureaplasma species (U. urealyticum and U. parvum) in their genital tract.[4][5][6][7]
- Controversial evidence exists supporting the association between genital colonization by Ureaplasma species and complications of pregnancy such as preterm delivery.[1]
- Lactobacilli help maintain the vaginal acidity, preventing the invasion of bacteria. However, the urease activity of Ureaplasma species such as U. urealyticum increases the pH of the vagina via the hydrolysis of urea into carbon dioxide and ammonia. This increases the susceptibility to mixed infection with other pathogenic bacteria.[8]
- Ureaplasma and other pathogenic bacteria induce the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and chemokines such as IL-8, leading to the recruitment of leukocytes and production of prostaglandins.[2][1] Uterine stimulation by prostaglandins result in preterm delivery.[8][2]
- Ureaplasmal lipoprotein also induce apoptosis, and it is possible that the apoptotic cells sustain genital tract inflammation which promote preterm delivery.[8]
- Studies have also shown a higher rate of vaginal colonization by Ureaplasma species in women with preterm deliveries compared to those with full-term deliveries.[8]
Neonatal infection and the role of Ureaplasma species
- Ureaplasma urealyticum and U. parvum are the most common organisms isolated from infected amniotic fluid and placenta, suggesting the potential role of Ureaplasma species in the development of disseminated neonatal infection.[9][5][6][7]
- The infection is commonly acquired via vertical transmission by three main mechanisms:[6]
- Maternal placental infection with umbilical vessels involvement result in the hematogenous dissemination of infection in the neonate.
- Passage of the organism into the fetal lung via an infected amniotic fluid.
- Perinatal acquisition of infection following passage of the baby through an infected maternal birth canal.
- Pneumonitis, bacteremia, or meningitis can occur following stimulation of host inflammatory responses by the organism.[7][6]
- Preterm neonates are most commonly affected, and very low birth weight (VLBW) infants have been noted to have invasive Ureaplasma infection.[7] Preterm infants weighing <5.5 pounds are nearly four times more likely to develop systemic infection compared to full term infants weighing above 5.5 pounds.
- It has been suggested that severe Ureaplasma infection in VLBW infants may contribute to the development of severe intraventricular hemorrhage.[7]
- There may also be an association between necrotising enterocolitis and Ureaplasma colonization in preterm neonates.[5]
Colonization by Ureaplasma species and its association with urogenital infections in adults
- There is no significant association between Ureaplasma colonization of the lower genital tract and symptomatic urogenital infection in females.[10]
- The detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum and U. parvum in fluid samples obtained from the pouch of Douglas in 60% of women with lower urogenital tract Ureaplasma colonization confirms the fact that asymptomatic infection of the upper genital tract can occur in women following direct ascent of these organisms from the cervix and vagina to the sterile upper reproductive tract.[11]
- Ureaplasma colonization of the genital tract is common following puberty and it is directly related to sexual activity.[2]
- Ureaplasma urealyticum has been detected in men with nongonococcal urethritis, and also in those without nongonococcal urethritis.[12] Some studies conducted in men show there is an association between urogenital colonization by Ureaplasma urealyticum and nongonococcal urethritis.[12][13][14] However, the pathogenic role of Ureaplasma urealyticum in nongonococcal urethritis is still not clear.[15][3][16]
- Men with higher bacterial load of U. urealyticum (≥5 x 103) in first-void urine were found to have higher leukocyte counts (in their first-void urine sample) and symptomatic urethritis, suggesting there could be a positive correlation between the bacteria load of U. urealyticum and the development of inflammatory responses to the organism.[3]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H; et al. (2008). "Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses". Microbiol Immunol. 52 (6): 297–304. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x. PMID 18577163 Check
|pmid=value (help). - ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Waites KB, Schelonka RL, Xiao L, Grigsby PL, Novy MJ (2009). "Congenital and opportunistic infections: Ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis". Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 14 (4): 190–9. doi:10.1016/j.siny.2008.11.009. PMID 19109084.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Shimada Y, Ito S, Mizutani K, Sugawara T, Seike K, Tsuchiya T; et al. (2014). "Bacterial loads of Ureaplasma urealyticum contribute to development of urethritis in men". Int J STD AIDS. 25 (4): 294–8. doi:10.1177/0956462413504556. PMID 24047884.
- ↑ Resch B, Gutmann C, Reiterer F, Luxner J, Urlesberger B (2016). "Neonatal Ureaplasma urealyticum colonization increases pulmonary and cerebral morbidity despite treatment with macrolide antibiotics". Infection. 44 (3): 323–7. doi:10.1007/s15010-015-0858-7. PMID 26518581.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Okogbule-Wonodi AC, Gross GW, Sun CC, Agthe AG, Xiao L, Waites KB; et al. (2011). "Necrotizing enterocolitis is associated with ureaplasma colonization in preterm infants". Pediatr Res. 69 (5 Pt 1): 442–7. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e3182111827. PMC 3968774. PMID 21258263.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Waites KB, Crouse DT, Cassell GH (1993). "Systemic neonatal infection due to Ureaplasma urealyticum". Clin Infect Dis. 17 Suppl 1: S131–5. PMID 8399903.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Viscardi RM, Hashmi N, Gross GW, Sun CC, Rodriguez A, Fairchild KD (2008). "Incidence of invasive ureaplasma in VLBW infants: relationship to severe intraventricular hemorrhage". J Perinatol. 28 (11): 759–65. doi:10.1038/jp.2008.98. PMC 5334544. PMID 18596706.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Harada K, Tanaka H, Komori S, Tsuji Y, Nagata K, Tsutsui H; et al. (2008). "Vaginal infection with Ureaplasma urealyticum accounts for preterm delivery via induction of inflammatory responses". Microbiol Immunol. 52 (6): 297–304. doi:10.1111/j.1348-0421.2008.00039.x. PMID 18577163.
- ↑ Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, Goepfert AR, Faye-Petersen O, Cliver SP, Carlo WA; et al. (2008). "The Alabama Preterm Birth Study: umbilical cord blood Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis cultures in very preterm newborn infants". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 198 (1): 43.e1–5. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2007.07.033. PMC 2278008. PMID 18166302.
- ↑ Marovt M, Keše D, Kotar T, Kmet N, Miljković J, Šoba B; et al. (2015). "Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum detected with the same frequency among women with and without symptoms of urogenital tract infection". Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 34 (6): 1237–45. doi:10.1007/s10096-015-2351-8. PMID 25717022.
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- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Povlsen K, Bjørnelius E, Lidbrink P, Lind I (2002). "Relationship of Ureaplasma urealyticum biovar 2 to nongonococcal urethritis". Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 21 (2): 97–101. PMID 11939406.
- ↑ Deguchi T, Yoshida T, Miyazawa T, Yasuda M, Tamaki M, Ishiko H; et al. (2004). "Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum (biovar 2) with nongonococcal urethritis". Sex Transm Dis. 31 (3): 192–5. PMID 15076934.
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