Oligodendroglioma pathophysiology: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
Oligodendroglioma arises from the tripotential [[glial cell|glial precursor cells]] and ''not'' from the bipotential [[oligodendrocyte]]s.<ref name=pathogenesis>General features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma#cite_note-1</ref> Genes associated with the pathogenesis of oligodendroglioma include [[translocation|t[1;19][q10;p10]]], ''[[mutation|NJDS]]'', ''[[Isocitrate dehydrogenase|IDH1]]'', ''[[IDH2]]'', ''CIC'', ''[[Far upstream element-binding protein 1|FUBP1]]'', ''[[p53]]'', ''[[CD57|Leu-7]]'', ''[[TCF12|TCF-12]]'', ''[[Ogt|MGMT]]'', ''[[P73|TP73]]'', ''[[EGFR]]'', and ''[[PTEN]]''.<ref name=transloc>Molecular genetics of oligodendroglioma. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid21817013">{{cite journal| author=Bettegowda C, Agrawal N, Jiao Y, Sausen M, Wood LD, Hruban RH et al.| title=Mutations in CIC and FUBP1 contribute to human oligodendroglioma. | journal=Science | year= 2011 | volume= 333 | issue= 6048 | pages= 1453-5 | pmid=21817013 | doi=10.1126/science.1210557 | pmc=PMC3170506 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21817013  }} </ref><ref name=prog>Prognosis and treatment of oligodendroglioma. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid22072542">{{cite journal| author=Yip S, Butterfield YS, Morozova O, Chittaranjan S, Blough MD, An J et al.| title=Concurrent CIC mutations, IDH mutations, and 1p/19q loss distinguish oligodendrogliomas from other cancers. | journal=J Pathol | year= 2012 | volume= 226 | issue= 1 | pages= 7-16 | pmid=22072542 | doi=10.1002/path.2995 | pmc=PMC3246739 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22072542  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26068201">{{cite journal| author=Labreche K, Simeonova I, Kamoun A, Gleize V, Chubb D, Letouzé E et al.| title=TCF12 is mutated in anaplastic oligodendroglioma. | journal=Nat Commun | year= 2015 | volume= 6 | issue=  | pages= 7207 | pmid=26068201 | doi=10.1038/ncomms8207 | pmc=PMC4490400 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26068201  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21937591">{{cite journal| author=Suri V, Jha P, Agarwal S, Pathak P, Sharma MC, Sharma V et al.| title=Molecular profile of oligodendrogliomas in young patients. | journal=Neuro Oncol | year= 2011 | volume= 13 | issue= 10 | pages= 1099-106 | pmid=21937591 | doi=10.1093/neuonc/nor146 | pmc=PMC3177666 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21937591  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9038605">{{cite journal| author=Hagel C, Laking G, Laas R, Scheil S, Jung R, Milde-Langosch K et al.| title=Demonstration of p53 protein and TP53 gene mutations in oligodendrogliomas. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1996 | volume= 32A | issue= 13 | pages= 2242-8 | pmid=9038605 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9038605  }} </ref><ref name="pmiddoi:10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00167-8">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=doi:10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00167-8 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10  }} </ref><ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref> On gross pathology, oligodendroglioma is characterized by a well-circumscribed, gelatinous, calcified, gray mass which may expand a [[gyrus]] and remodel the [[skull]].<ref name=grosspa>Gross appearance of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, oligodendroglioma is characterized by diffuse growth pattern of highly cellular lesion with rounded nucleus with [[atypia]] and perinuclear halo resembling ''fried eggs'', distinct cell borders, clear cytoplasm, and abundant [[calcification]].<ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref><ref name=micro>Microscopic features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=turk>{{Citation |last=Tihan |first=Tarik|last=Ersen|first=Ayca |year=2008 |title=Pathology of malignant gliomas: Challenges of everyday practice and the WHO 2007 |publisher=Turkish Journal of Pathology |publication-place= |page= |url=http://www.turkjpath.org/text.php3?id=645 |accessdate=9 October, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15509821">{{cite journal| author=Eskandar EN, Loeffler JS, O'Neill AM, Hunter GJ, Louis DN| title=Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 33-2004. A 34-year-old man with a seizure and a frontal-lobe brain lesion. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2004 | volume= 351 | issue= 18 | pages= 1875-82 | pmid=15509821 | doi=10.1056/NEJMcpc049025 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15509821  }} </ref> Oligodendroglioma is demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as [[Microtubule-associated protein|MAP2]], [[GFAP]], [[S100 calcium binding protein A8|S-100]], EMA, [[isocitrate dehydrogenase|IDH1-R132H]], ATRX, [[Ki-67 (Biology)|Ki-67]], [[Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE)|NSE]] , [[Synaptophysin]], [[OLIG1]], and [[OLIG2]].<ref name=IHC>IHC of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid16622556">{{cite journal| author=Hilbig A, Barbosa-Coutinho LM, Netto GC, Bleil CB, Toscani NV| title=[Immunohistochemistry in oligodendrogliomas]. | journal=Arq Neuropsiquiatr | year= 2006 | volume= 64 | issue= 1 | pages= 67-71 | pmid=16622556 | doi=/S0004-282X2006000100014 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16622556  }} </ref><ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref>
Oligodendroglioma arises from the tripotential [[glial cell|glial precursor cells]] and ''not'' from the bipotential [[oligodendrocyte]]s.<ref name=pathogenesis>General features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma#cite_note-1</ref> Genes associated with the pathogenesis of oligodendroglioma include [[translocation|t[1;19][q10;p10]]], ''[[mutation|NJDS]]'', ''[[Isocitrate dehydrogenase|IDH1]]'', ''[[IDH2]]'', ''CIC'', ''[[Far upstream element-binding protein 1|FUBP1]]'', ''[[p53]]'', ''[[CD57|Leu-7]]'', ''[[TCF12|TCF-12]]'', ''[[Ogt|MGMT]]'', ''[[P73|TP73]]'', ''[[EGFR]]'', and ''[[PTEN]]''.<ref name=transloc>Molecular genetics of oligodendroglioma. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid21817013">{{cite journal| author=Bettegowda C, Agrawal N, Jiao Y, Sausen M, Wood LD, Hruban RH et al.| title=Mutations in CIC and FUBP1 contribute to human oligodendroglioma. | journal=Science | year= 2011 | volume= 333 | issue= 6048 | pages= 1453-5 | pmid=21817013 | doi=10.1126/science.1210557 | pmc=PMC3170506 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21817013  }} </ref><ref name=prog>Prognosis and treatment of oligodendroglioma. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid22072542">{{cite journal| author=Yip S, Butterfield YS, Morozova O, Chittaranjan S, Blough MD, An J et al.| title=Concurrent CIC mutations, IDH mutations, and 1p/19q loss distinguish oligodendrogliomas from other cancers. | journal=J Pathol | year= 2012 | volume= 226 | issue= 1 | pages= 7-16 | pmid=22072542 | doi=10.1002/path.2995 | pmc=PMC3246739 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22072542  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26068201">{{cite journal| author=Labreche K, Simeonova I, Kamoun A, Gleize V, Chubb D, Letouzé E et al.| title=TCF12 is mutated in anaplastic oligodendroglioma. | journal=Nat Commun | year= 2015 | volume= 6 | issue=  | pages= 7207 | pmid=26068201 | doi=10.1038/ncomms8207 | pmc=PMC4490400 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26068201  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21937591">{{cite journal| author=Suri V, Jha P, Agarwal S, Pathak P, Sharma MC, Sharma V et al.| title=Molecular profile of oligodendrogliomas in young patients. | journal=Neuro Oncol | year= 2011 | volume= 13 | issue= 10 | pages= 1099-106 | pmid=21937591 | doi=10.1093/neuonc/nor146 | pmc=PMC3177666 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21937591  }} </ref><ref name="pmid9038605">{{cite journal| author=Hagel C, Laking G, Laas R, Scheil S, Jung R, Milde-Langosch K et al.| title=Demonstration of p53 protein and TP53 gene mutations in oligodendrogliomas. | journal=Eur J Cancer | year= 1996 | volume= 32A | issue= 13 | pages= 2242-8 | pmid=9038605 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9038605  }} </ref><ref name="pmiddoi:10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00167-8">{{cite journal| author=Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G| title=Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes. | journal=Biochem Pharmacol | year= 1975 | volume= 24 | issue= 17 | pages= 1639-41 | pmid=doi:10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00167-8 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=10  }} </ref><ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref> On gross pathology, oligodendroglioma is characterized by a well-circumscribed, gelatinous, calcified, gray mass which may expand a [[gyrus]] and remodel the [[skull]].<ref name=grosspa>Gross appearance of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma</ref> On microscopic histopathological analysis, oligodendroglioma is characterized by diffuse growth pattern of highly cellular lesion with rounded nucleus with [[atypia]] and perinuclear halo resembling ''fried eggs'', distinct cell borders, clear cytoplasm, and abundant [[calcification]].<ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref><ref name=micro>Microscopic features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name=turk>{{Citation |last=Tihan |first=Tarik|last=Ersen|first=Ayca |year=2008 |title=Pathology of malignant gliomas: Challenges of everyday practice and the WHO 2007 |publisher=Turkish Journal of Pathology |publication-place= |page= |url=http://www.turkjpath.org/text.php3?id=645 |accessdate=9 October, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="pmid15509821">{{cite journal| author=Eskandar EN, Loeffler JS, O'Neill AM, Hunter GJ, Louis DN| title=Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 33-2004. A 34-year-old man with a seizure and a frontal-lobe brain lesion. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2004 | volume= 351 | issue= 18 | pages= 1875-82 | pmid=15509821 | doi=10.1056/NEJMcpc049025 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15509821  }} </ref> Oligodendroglioma is demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as [[Microtubule-associated protein|MAP2]], [[GFAP]], [[S100 calcium binding protein A8|S-100]], EMA, [[isocitrate dehydrogenase|IDH1-R132H]], ATRX, [[Ki-67 (Biology)|Ki-67]], [[Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE)|NSE]], [[Synaptophysin]], [[OLIG1]], and [[OLIG2]].<ref name=IHC>IHC of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma</ref><ref name="pmid16622556">{{cite journal| author=Hilbig A, Barbosa-Coutinho LM, Netto GC, Bleil CB, Toscani NV| title=[Immunohistochemistry in oligodendrogliomas]. | journal=Arq Neuropsiquiatr | year= 2006 | volume= 64 | issue= 1 | pages= 67-71 | pmid=16622556 | doi=/S0004-282X2006000100014 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16622556  }} </ref><ref name="von DeimlingHartmann2005">{{cite journal|last1=von Deimling|first1=A|last2=Hartmann|first2=C|title=Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment|journal=Neurology India|volume=53|issue=2|year=2005|pages=140|issn=0028-3886|doi=10.4103/0028-3886.16394}}</ref>


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==

Revision as of 17:59, 15 October 2015

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sujit Routray, M.D. [2]

Overview

Oligodendroglioma arises from the tripotential glial precursor cells and not from the bipotential oligodendrocytes.[1] Genes associated with the pathogenesis of oligodendroglioma include t[1;19][q10;p10], NJDS, IDH1, IDH2, CIC, FUBP1, p53, Leu-7, TCF-12, MGMT, TP73, EGFR, and PTEN.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] On gross pathology, oligodendroglioma is characterized by a well-circumscribed, gelatinous, calcified, gray mass which may expand a gyrus and remodel the skull.[11] On microscopic histopathological analysis, oligodendroglioma is characterized by diffuse growth pattern of highly cellular lesion with rounded nucleus with atypia and perinuclear halo resembling fried eggs, distinct cell borders, clear cytoplasm, and abundant calcification.[10][12][13][14] Oligodendroglioma is demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as MAP2, GFAP, S-100, EMA, IDH1-R132H, ATRX, Ki-67, NSE, Synaptophysin, OLIG1, and OLIG2.[15][16][10]

Pathophysiology

Pathogenesis

Genetics

  • There is a strong association of oligodendroglioma with expression of receptor tyrosine kinases that activate PI3K/AKT, RAS/MAP, and PLC/PKC pathways.[10]

Gross Pathology

  • On gross pathology, oligodendroglioma is characterized by a well-circumscribed, gelatinous, gray mass which may expand a gyrus and remodel the skull.[11]
  • Other characteristic gross pathological features associated with oligodendroglioma include:[11][10]
  • Common intracranial sites associated with oligodendroglioma include:[17]

Gallery

  • Brain: Oligodendroglioma: Gross; natural color, large, well circumscribed lesion in left frontal lobe

    Brain: Oligodendroglioma: Gross; natural color, large, well circumscribed lesion in left frontal lobe

Microscopic Pathology

On microscopic histopathological analysis, oligodendroglioma is characterized by:[10][12][13][14]

  • Diffusely growing tumor
  • Highly cellular lesion composed of cells resembling fried eggs with:
    • Round nucleus - key feature
    • Distinct cell borders
    • Moderate-to-marked nuclear atypia with speckled "salt-and-pepper" chromatin pattern
    • Clear cytoplasm
      • Some oligodendrogliomas have eosinophilic cytoplasm with focal perinuclear clearing
    • Acutely branched capillary sized vessels - "chicken-wire" like appearance
      • Abundant, delicate appearing; may vaguely resemble a paraganglioma at low power
  • Calcifications - striking feature
  • Perifocal edema - rare
  • Few tumors may exhibit eosinophilic granular bodies
  • Some tumors may show a spongioblastoma-like growth pattern

On microscopic histopathological analysis, anaplastic oligodendroglioma is characterized by:[12]

Gallery

  • Oligodendroglioma low magnification showing the characteristic small, branching, chicken wire-like blood vessels.H&E stain.[18]

    Oligodendroglioma low magnification showing the characteristic small, branching, chicken wire-like blood vessels.H&E stain.[18]

  • Oligodendroglioma high magnification showing highly cellular lesion composed of cells resembling fried eggs with distinct cell borders moderate-to-marked nuclear atypia, and a clear cytoplasm. Acutely branched capillary sized vessels - "chicken-wire" like appearance.[18]

    Oligodendroglioma high magnification showing highly cellular lesion composed of cells resembling fried eggs with distinct cell borders moderate-to-marked nuclear atypia, and a clear cytoplasm. Acutely branched capillary sized vessels - "chicken-wire" like appearance.[18]

  • Low power magnification of oligodendroglioma biopsy specimen showing discrete infiltration of the surrounding brain (HE stain, x40 mag).[19]

    Low power magnification of oligodendroglioma biopsy specimen showing discrete infiltration of the surrounding brain (HE stain, x40 mag).[19]

  • Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma showing minigemistocytes and mitoses among tumor cells with perinuclear halo. HE stain.[19]

    Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma showing minigemistocytes and mitoses among tumor cells with perinuclear halo. HE stain.[19]

  • Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma (MAP2 staining) showing perinuclear immunoreactivity of tumor cells.[19]

    Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma (MAP2 staining) showing perinuclear immunoreactivity of tumor cells.[19]

  • Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma (IDH1-R132H staining) showing immunoreactivity of tumor cells indicating presence of the isocitrate dehydrogenase 1-R132H mutation.[19]

    Histopathology of anaplastic oligodendroglioma (IDH1-R132H staining) showing immunoreactivity of tumor cells indicating presence of the isocitrate dehydrogenase 1-R132H mutation.[19]

Immunohistochemistry

Oligodendroglioma is demonstrated by positivity to tumor markers such as:[15][16][10]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 General features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma#cite_note-1
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Molecular genetics of oligodendroglioma. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Bettegowda C, Agrawal N, Jiao Y, Sausen M, Wood LD, Hruban RH; et al. (2011). "Mutations in CIC and FUBP1 contribute to human oligodendroglioma". Science. 333 (6048): 1453–5. doi:10.1126/science.1210557. PMC 3170506. PMID 21817013.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Prognosis and treatment of oligodendroglioma. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Yip S, Butterfield YS, Morozova O, Chittaranjan S, Blough MD, An J; et al. (2012). "Concurrent CIC mutations, IDH mutations, and 1p/19q loss distinguish oligodendrogliomas from other cancers". J Pathol. 226 (1): 7–16. doi:10.1002/path.2995. PMC 3246739. PMID 22072542.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Labreche K, Simeonova I, Kamoun A, Gleize V, Chubb D, Letouzé E; et al. (2015). "TCF12 is mutated in anaplastic oligodendroglioma". Nat Commun. 6: 7207. doi:10.1038/ncomms8207. PMC 4490400. PMID 26068201.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Suri V, Jha P, Agarwal S, Pathak P, Sharma MC, Sharma V; et al. (2011). "Molecular profile of oligodendrogliomas in young patients". Neuro Oncol. 13 (10): 1099–106. doi:10.1093/neuonc/nor146. PMC 3177666. PMID 21937591.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Hagel C, Laking G, Laas R, Scheil S, Jung R, Milde-Langosch K; et al. (1996). "Demonstration of p53 protein and TP53 gene mutations in oligodendrogliomas". Eur J Cancer. 32A (13): 2242–8. PMID 9038605.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Schmoldt A, Benthe HF, Haberland G (1975). "Digitoxin metabolism by rat liver microsomes". Biochem Pharmacol. 24 (17): 1639–41. PMID doi:10.1016/S0090-3019(03)00167-8 Check |pmid= value (help).
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 von Deimling, A; Hartmann, C (2005). "Oligodendrogliomas: Impact of molecular genetics on treatment". Neurology India. 53 (2): 140. doi:10.4103/0028-3886.16394. ISSN 0028-3886.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Gross appearance of oligodendroglioma. Dr Henry Knipe and Dr Frank Gaillard et al. http://radiopaedia.org/articles/oligodendroglioma
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Microscopic features of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Ersen, Ayca (2008), Pathology of malignant gliomas: Challenges of everyday practice and the WHO 2007, Turkish Journal of Pathology, retrieved 9 October, 2015 Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Eskandar EN, Loeffler JS, O'Neill AM, Hunter GJ, Louis DN (2004). "Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Weekly clinicopathological exercises. Case 33-2004. A 34-year-old man with a seizure and a frontal-lobe brain lesion". N Engl J Med. 351 (18): 1875–82. doi:10.1056/NEJMcpc049025. PMID 15509821.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 IHC of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Hilbig A, Barbosa-Coutinho LM, Netto GC, Bleil CB, Toscani NV (2006). "[Immunohistochemistry in oligodendrogliomas]". Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 64 (1): 67–71. doi:/S0004-282X2006000100014 Check |doi= value (help). PMID 16622556.
  17. ↑ Gross/radiologic findings of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Images of microscopic appearance of oligodendroglioma. Wikipedia 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligodendroglioma
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 Images of oligodendroglioma. Libre Pathology 2015. http://librepathology.org/wiki/index.php/Oligodendroglioma


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