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{{protein | Name = [[Endothelin 1]] | caption = | image = | width = | HGNCid = 3176 | Symbol = [[EDN1]] | AltSymbols = | EntrezGene = 1906 | OMIM = 131240 | RefSeq = NM_001955 | UniProt = P05305 | PDB = | ECnumber = | Chromosome = 6 | Arm = p | Band = 23 | LocusSupplementaryData = -p24 }}
{{Pfam_box
{{protein
| Symbol = Endothelin
| Name = Endothelin 2
| Name = Endothelin family
| image = 1EDN human endothelin1 02.png
| width =
| caption =
| Pfam= PF00322
| InterPro= IPR001928
| SMART=
| Prosite = PDOC00243
| SCOP = 1edp
| TCDB =
| OPM family= 147
| OPM protein= 3cmh
| PDB= 
}}
{{infobox protein
| Name = [[Endothelin 1]]  
| caption =  
| image = | width =  
| HGNCid = 3176  
| Symbol = [[EDN1]]  
| AltSymbols =  
| EntrezGene = 1906  
| OMIM = 131240  
| RefSeq = NM_001955  
| UniProt = P05305  
| PDB =  
| ECnumber =  
| Chromosome = 6  
| Arm = p  
| Band = 23  
| LocusSupplementaryData = -p24 }}
{{infobox protein
| Name = [[Endothelin 2]]
| image =  
| image =  
| width =  
| width =  
| caption =
| caption =
| Symbol = EDN2
| Symbol = [[Endothelin 2|EDN2]]
| AltSymbols =
| AltSymbols =
| ATC_prefix=
| ATC_prefix=
Line 25: Line 57:
| LocusSupplementaryData =  
| LocusSupplementaryData =  
}}
}}
{{protein
{{infobox protein
| Name = [[Endothelin 3]]
| Name = [[Endothelin 3]]
| image =  
| image =  
| width =  
| width =  
| caption =
| caption =
| Symbol = [[EDN3]]  
| Symbol = [[EDN3]]
| AltSymbols =
| AltSymbols =
| ATC_prefix=
| ATC_prefix=
Line 50: Line 82:
| LocusSupplementaryData = -q13.3
| LocusSupplementaryData = -q13.3
}}
}}
{{SI}}
'''Endothelins''' are peptides with [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s and effects in many body organs.<ref name="pr">{{cite journal | vauthors = Davenport AP, Hyndman KA, Dhaun N, Southan C, Kohan DE, Pollock JS, Pollock DM, Webb DJ, Maguire JJ | title = Endothelin | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 357–418 | date = April 2016 | pmid = 26956245 | pmc = 4815360 | doi = 10.1124/pr.115.011833 }}</ref><ref name="arpt">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kedzierski RM, Yanagisawa M | title = Endothelin system: the double-edged sword in health and disease | journal = Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology | volume = 41 | pages = 851–76 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11264479 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.851 }}</ref>  Endothelin constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. The endothelins are normally kept in balance by other mechanisms, but when [[gene expression|overexpressed]], they contribute to high blood pressure ([[hypertension]]), [[heart disease]], and potentially other diseases.<ref name=pr/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Maguire JJ, Davenport AP | title = Endothelin@25 - new agonists, antagonists, inhibitors and emerging research frontiers: IUPHAR Review 12 | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 171 | issue = 24 | pages = 5555–72 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25131455 | pmc = 4290702 | doi = 10.1111/bph.12874 }}</ref>
{{EH}}
 
Endothelins are 21-[[amino acid]] [[vasoconstriction|vasoconstricting]] [[peptide]]s produced primarily in the [[endothelium]] having a key role in [[smooth muscle|vascular homeostasis]]. Endothelins are implicated in vascular diseases of several organ systems, including the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain.<ref name="pmid11984741">{{cite journal | vauthors = Agapitov AV, Haynes WG | title = Role of endothelin in cardiovascular disease | journal = Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 11984741 | doi = 10.3317/jraas.2002.001 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16529555">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schinelli S | title = Pharmacology and physiopathology of the brain endothelin system: an overview | journal = Current Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 13 | issue = 6 | pages = 627–38 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16529555 | doi = 10.2174/092986706776055652 }}</ref> As of 2018, endothelins remain under extensive [[basic research|basic]] and [[clinical research]] to define their roles in several organ systems.<ref name=pr/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuang HY, Wu YH, Yi QJ, Tian J, Wu C, Shou WN, Lu TW | title = The efficiency of endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan for pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with congenital heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Medicine | volume = 97 | issue = 10 | pages = e0075 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29517668 | doi = 10.1097/MD.0000000000010075 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Iljazi A, Ayata C, Ashina M, Hougaard A | title = The Role of Endothelin in the Pathophysiology of Migraine-a Systematic Review | journal = Current Pain and Headache Reports | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 27 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29557064 | doi = 10.1007/s11916-018-0682-8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lu YP, Hasan AA, Zeng S, Hocher B | title = Plasma ET-1 Concentrations Are Elevated in Pregnant Women with Hypertension -Meta-Analysis of Clinical Studies | journal = Kidney and Blood Pressure Research | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 654–663 | year = 2017 | pmid = 29212079 | doi = 10.1159/000482004 }}</ref>
 
==Etymology==
Endothelins derived the name from their isolation in cultured [[endothelial cell]]s.<ref name=pr/><ref name=mc>{{cite book|first1= Ronald F|last1= Tuma|first2= Walter N| last2=Durán|first3= Klaus|last3= Ley | name-list-format = vanc |title=Microcirculation|year=2008|publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-0-12-374530-9|pages=305–307|edition=2nd}}</ref>
 
== Isoforms ==
There are three [[isoform]]s of the peptide (identified as ET-1, -2, -3) with varying regions of expression and binding to at least four known [[endothelin receptor]]s, ET<sub>A</sub>, ET<sub>B1</sub>, ET<sub>B2</sub> and ET<sub>C</sub>.<ref name=pr/><ref name="boron">{{cite book| first1=Walter F. |last1=Boron|first2= Emile L.|last2= Boulpaep | name-list-format = vanc |title=Medical physiology a cellular and molecular approach|year=2009|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-4377-2017-4|pages=480|edition=2nd International}}</ref>
 
==Antagonists==
Earliest antagonists discovered for ET<sub>A</sub> were [[BQ123]], and for ET<sub>B</sub>, [[BQ788]].<ref name=mc /> An ET<sub>A</sub>-selective antagonist, [[ambrisentan]] was approved for treatment of [[pulmonary arterial hypertension]] in 2007, followed by a more selective ET<sub>A</sub> antagonist, [[sitaxentan]], which was later withdrawn due to potentially lethal effects in the liver.<ref name=pr/> [[Bosentan]] was a precursor to [[macitentan]], which was approved in 2013.<ref name=pr/>
 
==Physiological effects==
Endothelins are the most potent vasoconstrictors known.<ref name=pr/><ref name=craig>{{cite book|first1=Charles R|last1=Craig|first2= Robert E|last2= Stitzel | name-list-format = vanc |title=Modern pharmacology with clinical applications|year=2004|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0-7817-3762-3|pages=215|edition=6th}}</ref> Overproduction of endothelin in the lungs may cause [[pulmonary hypertension]], which was treatable in preliminary research by [[bosentan]], [[sitaxentan]] or [[ambrisentan]].<ref name=pr/>
 
Endothelins have involvement in cardiovascular function, fluid-[[electrolyte]] [[homeostasis]], and neuronal mechanisms across diverse cell types.<ref name=pr/> Endothelin receptors are present in the three [[pituitary gland|pituitary lobes]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lange M, Pagotto U, Renner U, Arzberger T, Oeckler R, Stalla GK | title = The role of endothelins in the regulation of pituitary function | journal = Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 103–12 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12012269 | doi = 10.1055/s-2002-29086 }}</ref> which display increased metabolic activity when exposed to endothelin-1 in the blood or ventricular system.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gross PM, Wainman DS, Espinosa FJ | title = Differentiated metabolic stimulation of rat pituitary lobes by peripheral and central endothelin-1 | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 129 | issue = 2 | pages = 1110–2 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1855455 | doi = 10.1210/endo-129-2-1110 }}</ref>
 
ET-1 contributes to the vascular dysfunction associated with cardiovascular disease, particularly [[atherosclerosis]] and [[hypertension]].<ref name="pmid17617392">{{cite journal | vauthors=Böhm F, Pernow J | title=The importance of endothelin-1 for vascular dysfunction in cardiovascular disease | journal= CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH | volume=76 | issue=1 | pages=8–18 | year=2007 | url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0919/6e83c2860201c9a761b228777799c1c0b8aa.pdf  | doi=10.1016/j.cardiores.2007.06.004 | PMID = 17617392}}</ref> The ET<sub>A</sub> receptor for ET-1 is primarily located on vascular smooth muscle cells, mediating vasoconstriction, whereas the ET<sub>B</sub> receptor for ET-1 is primarily located on endothelial cells, causing vasodilation due to [[nitric oxide]] release.<ref name="pmid17617392" />
 
The binding of [[platelet]]s to the [[endothelium|endothelial cell]] receptor [[OLR1|LOX-1]] causes a release of  endothelin, which induces [[endothelial dysfunction]].<ref name="pmid10618423 ">{{cite journal | vauthors=Kakutani M, Masaki T, Sawamura T | title=A platelet-endothelium interaction mediated by lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 | journal= [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] | volume=97 | issue=1 | pages=360–364 | year=2000 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/97/1/360.long  | doi=10.1016/j.biochi.2016.10.010 | PMC=26668 | PMID = 10618423}}</ref>
 
==Disease involvement==
 
The ubiquitous distribution of endothelin peptides and receptors implicates involvement in a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes among different [[organ (anatomy)|organ systems]].<ref name=pr/> Among numerous diseases potentially occurring from endothelin dysregulation are:
 
* several types of [[cancer]]<ref name="pmid18325824">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bagnato A, Rosanò L | title = The endothelin axis in cancer | journal = The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology | volume = 40 | issue = 8 | pages = 1443–51 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18325824 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocel.2008.01.022 }}</ref><ref name="cmls">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kawanabe Y, Nauli SM | title = Endothelin | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 68 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–203 | date = January 2011 | pmid = 20848158 | pmc = 3141212 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-010-0518-0 }}</ref>
* [[Cerebrum|cerebral]] [[vasospasm]] following [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]<ref name="pmid17479073">{{cite journal | vauthors = Macdonald RL, Pluta RM, Zhang JH | title = Cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: the emerging revolution | journal = Nature Clinical Practice Neurology | volume = 3 | issue = 5 | pages = 256–63 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17479073 | doi = 10.1038/ncpneuro0490 }}</ref>
* [[arterial hypertension]], [[pulmonary hypertension]], and other [[cardiovascular]] disorders<ref name=cmls/>
* [[pain]] mediation<ref name="pmid15664691">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hasue F, Kuwaki T, Kisanuki YY, Yanagisawa M, Moriya H, Fukuda Y, Shimoyama M | title = Increased sensitivity to acute and persistent pain in neuron-specific endothelin-1 knockout mice | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 130 | issue = 2 | pages = 349–58 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15664691 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.036 }}</ref>
*[[cardiac hypertrophy]] and [[heart failure]]<ref name=cmls/>
*[[Dengue haemorrhagic fever]]
*[[Type II diabetes]]
*some cases of [[Hirschsprung disease]]
 
In [[insulin resistance]] the high levels of blood insulin results in increased production and activity of ET-1, which promotes vasoconstriction and elevates [[blood pressure]].<ref name="pmid19491294">{{cite journal | vauthors = Potenza MA, Addabbo F, Montagnani M | title = Vascular actions of insulin with implications for endothelial dysfunction | journal = American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 297 | issue = 3 | pages = E568–77 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19491294 | doi = 10.1152/ajpheart.00297.2016 }}</ref>
 
ET-1 impairs glucose uptake in the skeletal muscles of insulin resistant subjects, thereby worsening [[insulin resistance]].<ref name="pmid20207830">{{cite journal | vauthors = Shemyakin A, Salehzadeh F, Böhm F, Al-Khalili L, Gonon A, Wagner H, Efendic S, Krook A, Pernow J | title = Regulation of glucose uptake by endothelin-1 in human skeletal muscle in vivo and in vitro | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 95 | issue = 5 | pages = 2359–66 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20207830 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2009-1506 }}</ref>
 
In preliminary research, injection of endothelin-1 into a [[lateral ventricle|lateral cerebral ventricle]] was shown to potently stimulate [[metabolism|glucose metabolism]] in specified interconnected circuits of the brain, and to induce [[convulsion]]s, indicating its potential for diverse neural effects in conditions such as [[epilepsy]].<ref name="chew">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chew BH, Weaver DF, Gross PM | title = Dose-related potent brain stimulation by the neuropeptide endothelin-1 after intraventricular administration in conscious rats | journal = Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | pages = 37–47 | date = May 1995 | pmid = 7617731 }}</ref> Receptors for endothelin-1 exist in brain [[neuron]]s, indicating a potential role in neural functions.<ref name=cmls/>


==Overview==
== Gene regulation ==
'''Endothelins''' are 21-[[amino acid]] [[vasoconstriction|vasoconstricting]] [[peptide]]s produced primarily in the [[endothelium]] that plays a key part in [[smooth muscle|vascular homeostasis]]. Among the strongest vasoconstrictors known, endothelins are implicated in vascular diseases of several organ systems, including the heart, general circulation and brain<ref>Agapitov AV, Haynes WG. Role of endothelin in cardiovascular disease. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2002 Mar;3(1):1-15.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11984741]</ref><ref>Schinelli S. Pharmacology and physiopathology of the brain endothelin system: an overview. Curr Med Chem. 2006;13(6):627-38.  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16529555]</ref>. 
{{medical citations needed|section|date=April 2018}}


==Isoforms==
The endothelium regulates local vascular tone and integrity through the coordinated release of vasoactive molecules. Secretion of endothelin-1 (ET-1)1 from the endothelium signals vasoconstriction and influences local cellular growth and survival. ET-1 has been implicated in the development and progression of vascular disorders such as atherosclerosis and hypertension. Endothelial cells upregulate ET-1 in response to hypoxia, oxidized LDL, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and bacterial toxins. Initial studies on the ET-1 promoter provided some of the earliest mechanistic insight into endothelial-specific gene regulation. Numerous studies have since provided valuable insight into ET-1 promoter regulation under basal and activated cellular states.
There are three [[isoform]]s with varying regions of expression and two key [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]] types, [[Endothelin receptor|ET<sub>A</sub> and ET<sub>B</sub>]].
* ET<sub>A</sub> receptors are found in the [[smooth muscle]] tissue of [[blood vessel]]s, and binding of endothelin to ET<sub>A</sub> increases vasoconstriction (contraction of the blood vessel walls) and the [[retention]] of [[sodium]]. These lead to increased [[blood pressure]].  
* ET<sub>B</sub> is primarily located on the [[Endothelium|endothelial]] cells that line the interior of the blood vessels. When endothelin binds to ET<sub>B</sub> receptors, this leads to increased [[natriuresis]] and [[diuresis]] (the production and elimination of urine) and the release of [[nitric oxide]] (also called "NO" or [[endothelium-derived relaxing factor]]), all mechanisms that lower the blood pressure.
*Both types of ET receptor are found in the nervous system where they may mediate [[neurotransmission]] and vascular functions.


==Brain and nerves==
The ET-1 mRNA is labile with a half-life of less than an hour. Together, the combined actions of ET-1 transcription and rapid mRNA turnover allow for stringent control over its expression. It has previously been shown that ET-1 mRNA is selectively stabilized in response to cellular activation by Escherichia coli O157:H7-derived verotoxins, suggesting ET-1 is regulated by post-transcriptional mechanisms. Regulatory elements modulating mRNA half-life are often found within 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTR). The 1.1-kb 3'-UTR of human ET-1 accounts for over 50% of the transcript length and features long tracts of highly conserved sequences including an AU-rich region. Some 3'-UTR AU-rich elements (AREs) play important regulatory roles in cytokine and proto-oncogene expression by influencing half-life under basal conditions and in response to cellular activation. Several RNA-binding proteins with affinities for AREs have been characterized including AUF1 (hnRNPD), the ELAV family (HuR, HuB, HuC, HuD), tristetraprolin, TIA/TIAR, HSP70, and others. Although specific mechanisms directing ARE activity have not been fully elucidated, current models suggest ARE-binding proteins target specific mRNAs to cellular pathways that influence 3'-polyadenylate tail and 5'-cap metabolism.
Widely distributed in the body, [[receptor]]s for endothelin are present in blood vessels and cells of the brain, [[choroid plexus]] and peripheral [[nerves]]. When applied directly to the brain of rats in picomolar quantities as an experimental model of [[stroke]], endothelin-1 caused severe metabolic stimulation and [[seizures]] with substantial decreases in blood flow to the same brain regions, both effects mediated by [[calcium channels]]<ref>Gross PM, Zochodne DW, Wainman DS, Ho LT, Espinosa FJ, Weaver DF. Intraventricular endothelin-1 uncouples the blood flow: metabolism relationship in periventricular structures of the rat brain: involvement of L-type calcium channels. Neuropeptides. 1992 Jul;22(3):155-65. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1331845]</ref>. A similar strong vasoconstrictor action of endothelin-1 was demonstrated in a [[peripheral neuropathy]] model in rats<ref>Zochodne DW, Ho LT, Gross PM. Acute endoneurial ischemia induced by epineurial endothelin in the rat sciatic nerve. Am J Physiol. 1992 Dec;263(6 Pt 2):H1806-10.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1481904]</ref>.  


==Balance==
Recent studies have revealed a functional link between AUF1, heat shock proteins and the ubiquitin-proteasome network. Proteasome inhibition by chemical inhibition or heat shock was shown to stabilize a model ARE-containing mRNA whereas promotion of cellular ubiquitination pathways was shown to accelerate ARE mRNA turnover. Studies with in vitro proteasome preparations suggest that the proteasome itself may possess ARE-specific RNA destabilizing activity. The ARE-binding protein AUF1 has been linked to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. AUF1 mRNA destabilizing activity has been positively correlated with its level of polyubiquitination and has been shown to interact with a member of the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating protein family. Furthermore, under conditions of cellular heat shock AUF1 associates with heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), which itself possesses ARE binding activity.
In a healthy individual, a delicate balance between vasoconstriction and [[vasodilation]] is maintained by endothelin, [[calcitonin]] and other vasoconstrictors on the one hand and nitric  oxide, [[prostacyclin]] and other vasodilators on the other.


Overproduction of endothelin in the lungs may cause [[pulmonary hypertension]], which can sometimes be treated by the use of an [[endothelin receptor antagonist]], such as [[bosentan]] or [[sitaxsentan]].  The latter drug selectively blocks endothelin A receptors, decreasing the vasoconstrictive actions and allowing for increased beneficial effects of endothelin B stimulation, such as nitric oxide production. The precise effects of endothelin B receptor activation depends on the type of cells involved.
The ET-1 transcript is constitutively destabilized by its 3'-UTR through two destabilizing elements, DE1 and DE2.  DE1 functions through a conserved ARE by the AUF1-proteasome pathway and is regulated by the heat shock pathway.<ref name="pmid14660616">{{cite journal | vauthors = Mawji IA, Robb GB, Tai SC, Marsden PA | title = Role of the 3'-untranslated region of human endothelin-1 in vascular endothelial cells. Contribution to transcript lability and the cellular heat shock response | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 279 | issue = 10 | pages = 8655–67 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14660616 | doi = 10.1074/jbc.M312190200 }}</ref>


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}  
{{Reflist|32em}}


==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.endothelinscience.com/ Endothelin science (Actelion Pharmaceuticals)]
* {{MeshName|Endothelins}}
* {{MeshName|Endothelins}}


[[Category:Peptides]]
{{Intercellular signaling peptides and proteins}}
[[Category:Hormones]]
{{Peptidergics}}


{{WH}}
[[Category:Peptide hormones]]
{{WikiDoc Sources}}
[[Category:Hormones of the blood vessels]]
{{SIB}}
[[fr:Endothéline]]
[[ja:エンドセリン]]
[[pl:Endotelina]]
[[ru:Эндотелин]]

Latest revision as of 07:07, 10 January 2019

Endothelin family
File:1EDN human endothelin1 02.png
Identifiers
SymbolEndothelin
PfamPF00322
InterProIPR001928
PROSITEPDOC00243
SCOP1edp
SUPERFAMILY1edp
OPM superfamily147
OPM protein3cmh
Endothelin 1
Identifiers
SymbolEDN1
Entrez1906
HUGO3176
OMIM131240
RefSeqNM_001955
UniProtP05305
Other data
LocusChr. 6 p23-p24
Endothelin 2
Identifiers
SymbolEDN2
Entrez1907
HUGO3177
OMIM131241
RefSeqNM_001956
UniProtP20800
Other data
LocusChr. 1 p34
Endothelin 3
Identifiers
SymbolEDN3
HUGO3178
OMIM131242
RefSeqNM_000114
UniProtP14138
Other data
LocusChr. 20 q13.2-q13.3

Endothelins are peptides with receptors and effects in many body organs.[1][2] Endothelin constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. The endothelins are normally kept in balance by other mechanisms, but when overexpressed, they contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension), heart disease, and potentially other diseases.[1][3]

Endothelins are 21-amino acid vasoconstricting peptides produced primarily in the endothelium having a key role in vascular homeostasis. Endothelins are implicated in vascular diseases of several organ systems, including the heart, lungs, kidneys, and brain.[4][5] As of 2018, endothelins remain under extensive basic and clinical research to define their roles in several organ systems.[1][6][7][8]

Etymology

Endothelins derived the name from their isolation in cultured endothelial cells.[1][9]

Isoforms

There are three isoforms of the peptide (identified as ET-1, -2, -3) with varying regions of expression and binding to at least four known endothelin receptors, ETA, ETB1, ETB2 and ETC.[1][10]

Antagonists

Earliest antagonists discovered for ETA were BQ123, and for ETB, BQ788.[9] An ETA-selective antagonist, ambrisentan was approved for treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension in 2007, followed by a more selective ETA antagonist, sitaxentan, which was later withdrawn due to potentially lethal effects in the liver.[1] Bosentan was a precursor to macitentan, which was approved in 2013.[1]

Physiological effects

Endothelins are the most potent vasoconstrictors known.[1][11] Overproduction of endothelin in the lungs may cause pulmonary hypertension, which was treatable in preliminary research by bosentan, sitaxentan or ambrisentan.[1]

Endothelins have involvement in cardiovascular function, fluid-electrolyte homeostasis, and neuronal mechanisms across diverse cell types.[1] Endothelin receptors are present in the three pituitary lobes[12] which display increased metabolic activity when exposed to endothelin-1 in the blood or ventricular system.[13]

ET-1 contributes to the vascular dysfunction associated with cardiovascular disease, particularly atherosclerosis and hypertension.[14] The ETA receptor for ET-1 is primarily located on vascular smooth muscle cells, mediating vasoconstriction, whereas the ETB receptor for ET-1 is primarily located on endothelial cells, causing vasodilation due to nitric oxide release.[14]

The binding of platelets to the endothelial cell receptor LOX-1 causes a release of endothelin, which induces endothelial dysfunction.[15]

Disease involvement

The ubiquitous distribution of endothelin peptides and receptors implicates involvement in a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes among different organ systems.[1] Among numerous diseases potentially occurring from endothelin dysregulation are:

In insulin resistance the high levels of blood insulin results in increased production and activity of ET-1, which promotes vasoconstriction and elevates blood pressure.[20]

ET-1 impairs glucose uptake in the skeletal muscles of insulin resistant subjects, thereby worsening insulin resistance.[21]

In preliminary research, injection of endothelin-1 into a lateral cerebral ventricle was shown to potently stimulate glucose metabolism in specified interconnected circuits of the brain, and to induce convulsions, indicating its potential for diverse neural effects in conditions such as epilepsy.[22] Receptors for endothelin-1 exist in brain neurons, indicating a potential role in neural functions.[17]

Gene regulation

The endothelium regulates local vascular tone and integrity through the coordinated release of vasoactive molecules. Secretion of endothelin-1 (ET-1)1 from the endothelium signals vasoconstriction and influences local cellular growth and survival. ET-1 has been implicated in the development and progression of vascular disorders such as atherosclerosis and hypertension. Endothelial cells upregulate ET-1 in response to hypoxia, oxidized LDL, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and bacterial toxins. Initial studies on the ET-1 promoter provided some of the earliest mechanistic insight into endothelial-specific gene regulation. Numerous studies have since provided valuable insight into ET-1 promoter regulation under basal and activated cellular states.

The ET-1 mRNA is labile with a half-life of less than an hour. Together, the combined actions of ET-1 transcription and rapid mRNA turnover allow for stringent control over its expression. It has previously been shown that ET-1 mRNA is selectively stabilized in response to cellular activation by Escherichia coli O157:H7-derived verotoxins, suggesting ET-1 is regulated by post-transcriptional mechanisms. Regulatory elements modulating mRNA half-life are often found within 3'-untranslated regions (3'-UTR). The 1.1-kb 3'-UTR of human ET-1 accounts for over 50% of the transcript length and features long tracts of highly conserved sequences including an AU-rich region. Some 3'-UTR AU-rich elements (AREs) play important regulatory roles in cytokine and proto-oncogene expression by influencing half-life under basal conditions and in response to cellular activation. Several RNA-binding proteins with affinities for AREs have been characterized including AUF1 (hnRNPD), the ELAV family (HuR, HuB, HuC, HuD), tristetraprolin, TIA/TIAR, HSP70, and others. Although specific mechanisms directing ARE activity have not been fully elucidated, current models suggest ARE-binding proteins target specific mRNAs to cellular pathways that influence 3'-polyadenylate tail and 5'-cap metabolism.

Recent studies have revealed a functional link between AUF1, heat shock proteins and the ubiquitin-proteasome network. Proteasome inhibition by chemical inhibition or heat shock was shown to stabilize a model ARE-containing mRNA whereas promotion of cellular ubiquitination pathways was shown to accelerate ARE mRNA turnover. Studies with in vitro proteasome preparations suggest that the proteasome itself may possess ARE-specific RNA destabilizing activity. The ARE-binding protein AUF1 has been linked to the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. AUF1 mRNA destabilizing activity has been positively correlated with its level of polyubiquitination and has been shown to interact with a member of the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating protein family. Furthermore, under conditions of cellular heat shock AUF1 associates with heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), which itself possesses ARE binding activity.

The ET-1 transcript is constitutively destabilized by its 3'-UTR through two destabilizing elements, DE1 and DE2. DE1 functions through a conserved ARE by the AUF1-proteasome pathway and is regulated by the heat shock pathway.[23]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 Davenport AP, Hyndman KA, Dhaun N, Southan C, Kohan DE, Pollock JS, Pollock DM, Webb DJ, Maguire JJ (April 2016). "Endothelin". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 357–418. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011833. PMC 4815360. PMID 26956245.
  2. ↑ Kedzierski RM, Yanagisawa M (2001). "Endothelin system: the double-edged sword in health and disease". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. 41: 851–76. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.851. PMID 11264479.
  3. ↑ Maguire JJ, Davenport AP (December 2014). "Endothelin@25 - new agonists, antagonists, inhibitors and emerging research frontiers: IUPHAR Review 12". British Journal of Pharmacology. 171 (24): 5555–72. doi:10.1111/bph.12874. PMC 4290702. PMID 25131455.
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  5. ↑ Schinelli S (2006). "Pharmacology and physiopathology of the brain endothelin system: an overview". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 13 (6): 627–38. doi:10.2174/092986706776055652. PMID 16529555.
  6. ↑ Kuang HY, Wu YH, Yi QJ, Tian J, Wu C, Shou WN, Lu TW (March 2018). "The efficiency of endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan for pulmonary arterial hypertension associated with congenital heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Medicine. 97 (10): e0075. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000010075. PMID 29517668.
  7. ↑ Iljazi A, Ayata C, Ashina M, Hougaard A (March 2018). "The Role of Endothelin in the Pathophysiology of Migraine-a Systematic Review". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 22 (4): 27. doi:10.1007/s11916-018-0682-8. PMID 29557064.
  8. ↑ Lu YP, Hasan AA, Zeng S, Hocher B (2017). "Plasma ET-1 Concentrations Are Elevated in Pregnant Women with Hypertension -Meta-Analysis of Clinical Studies". Kidney and Blood Pressure Research. 42 (4): 654–663. doi:10.1159/000482004. PMID 29212079.
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  11. ↑ Craig CR, Stitzel RE (2004). Modern pharmacology with clinical applications (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-7817-3762-3.
  12. ↑ Lange M, Pagotto U, Renner U, Arzberger T, Oeckler R, Stalla GK (May 2002). "The role of endothelins in the regulation of pituitary function". Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes. 110 (3): 103–12. doi:10.1055/s-2002-29086. PMID 12012269.
  13. ↑ Gross PM, Wainman DS, Espinosa FJ (August 1991). "Differentiated metabolic stimulation of rat pituitary lobes by peripheral and central endothelin-1". Endocrinology. 129 (2): 1110–2. doi:10.1210/endo-129-2-1110. PMID 1855455.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Böhm F, Pernow J (2007). "The importance of endothelin-1 for vascular dysfunction in cardiovascular disease" (PDF). CARDIOVASCULAR RESEARCH. 76 (1): 8–18. doi:10.1016/j.cardiores.2007.06.004. PMID 17617392.
  15. ↑ Kakutani M, Masaki T, Sawamura T (2000). "A platelet-endothelium interaction mediated by lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (1): 360–364. doi:10.1016/j.biochi.2016.10.010. PMC 26668. PMID 10618423.
  16. ↑ Bagnato A, Rosanò L (2008). "The endothelin axis in cancer". The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology. 40 (8): 1443–51. doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2008.01.022. PMID 18325824.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Kawanabe Y, Nauli SM (January 2011). "Endothelin". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 68 (2): 195–203. doi:10.1007/s00018-010-0518-0. PMC 3141212. PMID 20848158.
  18. ↑ Macdonald RL, Pluta RM, Zhang JH (May 2007). "Cerebral vasospasm after subarachnoid hemorrhage: the emerging revolution". Nature Clinical Practice Neurology. 3 (5): 256–63. doi:10.1038/ncpneuro0490. PMID 17479073.
  19. ↑ Hasue F, Kuwaki T, Kisanuki YY, Yanagisawa M, Moriya H, Fukuda Y, Shimoyama M (2005). "Increased sensitivity to acute and persistent pain in neuron-specific endothelin-1 knockout mice". Neuroscience. 130 (2): 349–58. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2004.09.036. PMID 15664691.
  20. ↑ Potenza MA, Addabbo F, Montagnani M (September 2009). "Vascular actions of insulin with implications for endothelial dysfunction". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 297 (3): E568–77. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.00297.2016. PMID 19491294.
  21. ↑ Shemyakin A, Salehzadeh F, Böhm F, Al-Khalili L, Gonon A, Wagner H, Efendic S, Krook A, Pernow J (May 2010). "Regulation of glucose uptake by endothelin-1 in human skeletal muscle in vivo and in vitro". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 95 (5): 2359–66. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1506. PMID 20207830.
  22. ↑ Chew BH, Weaver DF, Gross PM (May 1995). "Dose-related potent brain stimulation by the neuropeptide endothelin-1 after intraventricular administration in conscious rats". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 51 (1): 37–47. PMID 7617731.
  23. ↑ Mawji IA, Robb GB, Tai SC, Marsden PA (March 2004). "Role of the 3'-untranslated region of human endothelin-1 in vascular endothelial cells. Contribution to transcript lability and the cellular heat shock response". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (10): 8655–67. doi:10.1074/jbc.M312190200. PMID 14660616.

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