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*[[Drugs]]
*[[Drugs]]


==Infectious Causes==
===Infectious Causes===
Some causative factors for the infectious subtypes of stomatitis include:
Some causative factors for the infectious subtypes of stomatitis include:
===[[HIV]]===
====[[HIV]]====
The following pathogens can cause stomatitis in [[HIV]]:<ref name="pmid12544709">{{cite journal| author=Ramírez-Amador V, Esquivel-Pedraza L, Sierra-Madero J, Anaya-Saavedra G, González-Ramírez I, Ponce-de-León S| title=The Changing Clinical Spectrum of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Related Oral Lesions in 1,000 Consecutive Patients: A 12-Year Study in a Referral Center in Mexico. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2003 | volume= 82 | issue= 1 | pages= 39-50 | pmid=12544709 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12544709  }} </ref>
The following pathogens can cause stomatitis in [[HIV]]:<ref name="pmid12544709">{{cite journal| author=Ramírez-Amador V, Esquivel-Pedraza L, Sierra-Madero J, Anaya-Saavedra G, González-Ramírez I, Ponce-de-León S| title=The Changing Clinical Spectrum of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Related Oral Lesions in 1,000 Consecutive Patients: A 12-Year Study in a Referral Center in Mexico. | journal=Medicine (Baltimore) | year= 2003 | volume= 82 | issue= 1 | pages= 39-50 | pmid=12544709 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12544709  }} </ref>
*[[Mycobacterium avium intracellulare]]
*[[Mycobacterium avium intracellulare]]
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*[[Cryptococcus]]
*[[Cryptococcus]]


===[[Necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis]] or [[gangrenous stomatitis|Stomatitis gangrenosa]] or NOMA===
====[[Necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis]] or [[gangrenous stomatitis|Stomatitis gangrenosa]] or NOMA====
Following are a few causes of gangrenous stomatitis<ref name="Gangrenous stomatitis">{{cite book |last1=Mandell |firs1t=Gerald |last2=Gouglas |first2=Gordon |last3=Bennett |first3=John |date= |title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases |location= Harvard Medical School |publisher=WILEY MEDICAL |page=383 |isbn=0-471-87643-7}}​</ref><ref name="pmid26235765">{{cite journal| author=Zwetyenga N, See LA, Szwebel J, Beuste M, Aragou M, Oeuvrard C et al.| title=[Noma]. | journal=Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac Chir Orale | year= 2015 | volume= 116 | issue= 4 | pages= 261-79 | pmid=26235765 | doi=10.1016/j.revsto.2015.06.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26235765  }} </ref>
Following are a few causes of gangrenous stomatitis<ref name="Gangrenous stomatitis">{{cite book |last1=Mandell |firs1t=Gerald |last2=Gouglas |first2=Gordon |last3=Bennett |first3=John |date= |title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases |location= Harvard Medical School |publisher=WILEY MEDICAL |page=383 |isbn=0-471-87643-7}}​</ref><ref name="pmid26235765">{{cite journal| author=Zwetyenga N, See LA, Szwebel J, Beuste M, Aragou M, Oeuvrard C et al.| title=[Noma]. | journal=Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac Chir Orale | year= 2015 | volume= 116 | issue= 4 | pages= 261-79 | pmid=26235765 | doi=10.1016/j.revsto.2015.06.009 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26235765  }} </ref>
*[[Borrelia]]
*[[Borrelia]]
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*Nonhemolytic [[Streptococcus]]'' spp
*Nonhemolytic [[Streptococcus]]'' spp


===[[Trench mouth]] or Acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis===
====[[Trench mouth]] or Acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis====
*[[Spirochetes]]<ref name="pmid25540346">{{cite journal| author=Chan Y, Ma AP, Lacap-Bugler DC, Huo YB, Keung Leung W, Leung FC et al.| title=Complete Genome Sequence for Treponema sp. OMZ 838 (ATCC 700772, DSM 16789), Isolated from a Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis Lesion. | journal=Genome Announc | year= 2014 | volume= 2 | issue= 6 | pages=  | pmid=25540346 | doi=10.1128/genomeA.01333-14 | pmc=4276824 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25540346  }} </ref>
*[[Spirochetes]]<ref name="pmid25540346">{{cite journal| author=Chan Y, Ma AP, Lacap-Bugler DC, Huo YB, Keung Leung W, Leung FC et al.| title=Complete Genome Sequence for Treponema sp. OMZ 838 (ATCC 700772, DSM 16789), Isolated from a Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis Lesion. | journal=Genome Announc | year= 2014 | volume= 2 | issue= 6 | pages=  | pmid=25540346 | doi=10.1128/genomeA.01333-14 | pmc=4276824 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25540346  }} </ref>
**[[Borrelia]]
**[[Borrelia]]
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*[[Bacteroides]]
*[[Bacteroides]]


===[[Bovine papular stomatitis]]===
====[[Bovine papular stomatitis]]====
*[[Bovine papular stomatitis virus]]<ref name="bovine pustular stomatitis">{{cite book |last1=Mandell |firs1t=Gerald |last2=Gouglas |first2=Gordon |last3=Bennett |first3=John |date= |title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases |location= Harvard Medical School |publisher=WILEY MEDICAL |page=988 |isbn=0-471-87643-7}}​</ref><ref name="pmid27751948">{{cite journal| author=Kurosaki Y, Okada S, Nakamae S, Yasuda J| title=A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and sensitive detection of bovine papular stomatitis virus. | journal=J Virol Methods | year= 2016 | volume= 238 | issue=  | pages= 42-47 | pmid=27751948 | doi=10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.07.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27751948  }} </ref>
*[[Bovine papular stomatitis virus]]<ref name="bovine pustular stomatitis">{{cite book |last1=Mandell |firs1t=Gerald |last2=Gouglas |first2=Gordon |last3=Bennett |first3=John |date= |title=Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases |location= Harvard Medical School |publisher=WILEY MEDICAL |page=988 |isbn=0-471-87643-7}}​</ref><ref name="pmid27751948">{{cite journal| author=Kurosaki Y, Okada S, Nakamae S, Yasuda J| title=A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and sensitive detection of bovine papular stomatitis virus. | journal=J Virol Methods | year= 2016 | volume= 238 | issue=  | pages= 42-47 | pmid=27751948 | doi=10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.07.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27751948  }} </ref>


===[[Hand-foot-and-mouth disease]]===
====[[Hand-foot-and-mouth disease]]====
*[[Coxsackie Virus|Coxsackie Virus Group A]]<ref name="pmid14492892">{{cite journal| author=ROBINSON CR, RHODES AJ| title=Vesicular exanthem and stomatitis. Report of an epidemic due to Coxsacke virus Group A, Type 16. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1961 | volume= 265 | issue=  | pages= 1104-5 | pmid=14492892 | doi=10.1056/NEJM196111302652207 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14492892  }} </ref>
*[[Coxsackie Virus|Coxsackie Virus Group A]]<ref name="pmid14492892">{{cite journal| author=ROBINSON CR, RHODES AJ| title=Vesicular exanthem and stomatitis. Report of an epidemic due to Coxsacke virus Group A, Type 16. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1961 | volume= 265 | issue=  | pages= 1104-5 | pmid=14492892 | doi=10.1056/NEJM196111302652207 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14492892  }} </ref>


===Candidal Stomatitis===
====Candidal Stomatitis====
*[[Candida]] sp<ref name="pmid28232964">{{cite journal| author=Zhou PR, Hua H, Liu XS| title=Quantity of Candida Colonies in Saliva: 
A Diagnostic Evaluation for Oral Candidiasis. | journal=Chin J Dent Res | year= 2017 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 27-32 | pmid=28232964 | doi=10.3290/j.cjdr.a37739 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28232964  }} </ref>
*[[Candida]] sp<ref name="pmid28232964">{{cite journal| author=Zhou PR, Hua H, Liu XS| title=Quantity of Candida Colonies in Saliva: 
A Diagnostic Evaluation for Oral Candidiasis. | journal=Chin J Dent Res | year= 2017 | volume= 20 | issue= 1 | pages= 27-32 | pmid=28232964 | doi=10.3290/j.cjdr.a37739 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28232964  }} </ref>


===Nicotinic stomatitis===
 
===Non-infectious Causes===
====Nicotinic stomatitis====
*Smoking with a pipe<ref name="pmid14557730">{{cite journal| author=Taybos G| title=Oral changes associated with tobacco use. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 2003 | volume= 326 | issue= 4 | pages= 179-82 | pmid=14557730 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14557730  }} </ref>
*Smoking with a pipe<ref name="pmid14557730">{{cite journal| author=Taybos G| title=Oral changes associated with tobacco use. | journal=Am J Med Sci | year= 2003 | volume= 326 | issue= 4 | pages= 179-82 | pmid=14557730 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=14557730  }} </ref>
 
====Contact stomatitis====
===Contact stomatitis===
*Aroma substances in the products used for oral hygiene<ref name="pmid28084550">{{cite journal| author=Larsen KR, Johansen JD, Reibel J, Zachariae C, Pedersen AM| title=Symptomatic oral lesions may be associated with contact allergy to substances in oral hygiene products. | journal=Clin Oral Investig | year= 2017 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=28084550 | doi=10.1007/s00784-017-2053-y | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28084550  }} </ref><ref>{{Cite journal
*Aroma substances in the products used for oral hygiene<ref name="pmid28084550">{{cite journal| author=Larsen KR, Johansen JD, Reibel J, Zachariae C, Pedersen AM| title=Symptomatic oral lesions may be associated with contact allergy to substances in oral hygiene products. | journal=Clin Oral Investig | year= 2017 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=28084550 | doi=10.1007/s00784-017-2053-y | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28084550  }} </ref><ref>{{Cite journal
  | author = [[A. Tosti]], [[B. M. Piraccini]] & [[A. M. Peluso]]
  | author = [[A. Tosti]], [[B. M. Piraccini]] & [[A. M. Peluso]]
Line 93: Line 94:
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


===Causes by Organ System===
====Causes by Organ System====
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" |'''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" |'''Cardiovascular'''

Revision as of 13:41, 17 March 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sara Mehrsefat, M.D. [2]

Overview

Various pathogens including Herpes virus, lack of oral hygiene and nutritional deficiencies can cause stomatitis along with many other causes. A detailed insight on the various causes of stomatitis has been described.[1][2]

Causes

Life Threatening Causes

Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated.

Common Causes

The common causes of stomatitis include:[3][4][5]

Infectious Causes

Some causative factors for the infectious subtypes of stomatitis include:

HIV

The following pathogens can cause stomatitis in HIV:[6]

Necrotizing ulcerative stomatitis or Stomatitis gangrenosa or NOMA

Following are a few causes of gangrenous stomatitis[7][8]

Trench mouth or Acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis

Bovine papular stomatitis

Hand-foot-and-mouth disease

Candidal Stomatitis


Non-infectious Causes

Nicotinic stomatitis

  • Smoking with a pipe[14]

Contact stomatitis

  • Aroma substances in the products used for oral hygiene[15][16]

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Kawasaki disease
Chemical/Poisoning Bismuthia, gold, mercury poisoning, nickel, thallium
Dental Angular cheilitis, angular stomatitis, aphthous stomatitis, aphthous ulcer, burning mouth syndrome, dentures, desquamative gingivitis, dry mouth, herpetic gingivostomatitis, hypertrophic gums, nicotine stomatitis, oral lesions, oral submucous fibrosis, oral ulceration, trench mouth, ulcerative gingivitis, Vincent's angina
Dermatologic Behcet's disease, bismuthia, erythema multiforme, gluten-sensitive enteropathy associated conditions, lip balm, pemphigoid, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, vesicular stomatitis with exanthem, warts
Drug Side Effect Acmella oleracea, afatinib, aflibercept, alemtuzumab, aminopterin, aralen phosphate, auranofin, benzydamine, bleomycin, boceprevir, busulfan, cabozantinib, capecitabine, carboplatin, cerubidine, chemotherapy, chloramphenicol, chloroquine phosphate, clofibrate, cosmegen, cyclophosphamide, cytosine arabinoside, dacarbazine, dactinomycin, daptomycin, daunorubicin, docetaxel, epirubicin,eribulin, etoposide, everolimus, floxuridine, fluorouracil, gemcitabine, gemtuzumab ozogamicin, gentamicin, ginkgo biloba, hexetidine, ixabepilone, ketorolac tromethamine, lenvatinib, levoleucovorin, lincomycin hydrochloride, lomustine, loratadine, melphalan, methotrexate, metronidazole, mitomycin, mitoxantrone, nabumetone, nicotine polacrilex, oxaliplatin, oxaprozin, oxcarbazepine, palbociclib, panitumumab, paraplatin, penicillin G potassium, pentostatin, peplomycin, pertuzumab, phenylbutazone, pixantrone, pralatrexate, pramipexole, procainamide, sargramostim, sirolimus, sodium aurothiomalate, sorafenib, sulfasalazine, sulindac, sunitinib, temsirolimus, thioguanine, tiagabine, tolmetin, trametinib, ziv-aflibercept
Ear Nose Throat Angular stomatitis, aphthous stomatitis, aphthous ulcer, glandular fever, oropharyngeal cancer, periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis, trench mouth, uvulitis, Vincent's angina
Endocrine Glucagonoma
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic Celiac disease, Crohn's disease, dysphagia, inflammatory bowel disease, odynophagia, oropharyngeal candidiasis, ulcerative colitis
Genetic Chronic granulomatous disease
Hematologic Agranulocytosis, anemia, cyclic neutropenia, iron deficiency anemia, leukemia, neutropenia
Iatrogenic Irradiation
Infectious Disease Aphthous stomatitis, aphthous ulcer, arbovirus, baculovirus, bovine papular stomatitis, candidiasis, coxsackie virus, diphtheritic stomatitis, ebola, esophageal candidiasis, feline calicivirus, feline immunodeficiency virus, gangrenous stomatitis, glandular fever, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, herpangina, herpes simplex virus, herpes zoster, herpes, herpetic gingivostomatitis, HIV, infectious stomatitis, lassa fever, lichen planus, Marburg virus, noma (disease), oncolytic virus, oropharyngeal candidiasis, parapoxvirus, periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and adenitis, syphilis, trench mouth, tuberculosis, typhlitis, vesicular stomatitis virus, vesicular stomatitis with exanthem, vesiculovirus, Vincent's angina, warts
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic Odynophagia
Neurologic Parkinson's disease
Nutritional/Metabolic Angular cheilitis, ariboflavinosis, folate deficiency, kwashiorkor, lingzhi, nutritional deficiency, pyrophosphate, vitamin B12 deficiency, vitamin B2 deficiency, vitamin B6 deficiency, vitamin C deficiency
Obstetric/Gynecologic Warts
Oncologic Cancer, glucagonoma, leukemia, oropharyngeal cancer
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric Emotional stress
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy Allergies, autoimmune diseases, Behcet's disease, chronic granulomatous disease, combined immunodeficiencies, drug hypersensitivity, gluten-sensitive enteropathy associated conditions, pemphigoid, periodic fever syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma Trauma
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous Mucosa hemorrhage

Causes in Alphabetical Order[17] [18]

The unnamed parameter 2= is no longer supported. Please see the documentation for {{columns-list}}.
3

References

  1. ↑ Magliocca KR, Fitzpatrick SG (2017). "Autoimmune Disease Manifestations in the Oral Cavity". Surg Pathol Clin. 10 (1): 57–88. doi:10.1016/j.path.2016.11.001. PMID 28153136.
  2. ↑ Pellicer Z, Santiago JM, Rodriguez A, Alonso V, Antón R, Bosca MM (2012). "Management of cutaneous disorders related to inflammatory bowel disease". Ann Gastroenterol. 25 (1): 21–26. PMC 3959344. PMID 24713996.
  3. ↑ Kolokotronis A, Doumas S (2006). "Herpes simplex virus infection, with particular reference to the progression and complications of primary herpetic gingivostomatitis". Clin Microbiol Infect. 12 (3): 202–11. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01336.x. PMID 16451405.
  4. ↑ R. Morgan, J. Tsang, N. Harrington & L. Fook (2001). "Survey of hospital doctors' attitudes and knowledge of oral conditions in older patients". Postgraduate medical journal. 77 (908): 392–394. PMID 11375454. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Sonis ST (2004). "The pathobiology of mucositis". Nat Rev Cancer. 4 (4): 277–84. doi:10.1038/nrc1318. PMID 15057287.
  6. ↑ Ramírez-Amador V, Esquivel-Pedraza L, Sierra-Madero J, Anaya-Saavedra G, González-Ramírez I, Ponce-de-León S (2003). "The Changing Clinical Spectrum of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Related Oral Lesions in 1,000 Consecutive Patients: A 12-Year Study in a Referral Center in Mexico". Medicine (Baltimore). 82 (1): 39–50. PMID 12544709.
  7. ↑ Mandell; Gouglas, Gordon; Bennett, John. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Harvard Medical School: WILEY MEDICAL. p. 383. ISBN 0-471-87643-7. Unknown parameter |firs1t= ignored (help)​
  8. ↑ Zwetyenga N, See LA, Szwebel J, Beuste M, Aragou M, Oeuvrard C; et al. (2015). "[Noma]". Rev Stomatol Chir Maxillofac Chir Orale. 116 (4): 261–79. doi:10.1016/j.revsto.2015.06.009. PMID 26235765.
  9. ↑ Chan Y, Ma AP, Lacap-Bugler DC, Huo YB, Keung Leung W, Leung FC; et al. (2014). "Complete Genome Sequence for Treponema sp. OMZ 838 (ATCC 700772, DSM 16789), Isolated from a Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis Lesion". Genome Announc. 2 (6). doi:10.1128/genomeA.01333-14. PMC 4276824. PMID 25540346.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 ROBINSON CR, RHODES AJ (1961). "Vesicular exanthem and stomatitis. Report of an epidemic due to Coxsacke virus Group A, Type 16". N Engl J Med. 265: 1104–5. doi:10.1056/NEJM196111302652207. PMID 14492892.
  11. ↑ Mandell; Gouglas, Gordon; Bennett, John. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Harvard Medical School: WILEY MEDICAL. p. 988. ISBN 0-471-87643-7. Unknown parameter |firs1t= ignored (help)​
  12. ↑ Kurosaki Y, Okada S, Nakamae S, Yasuda J (2016). "A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and sensitive detection of bovine papular stomatitis virus". J Virol Methods. 238: 42–47. doi:10.1016/j.jviromet.2016.07.031. PMID 27751948.
  13. ↑ Zhou PR, Hua H, Liu XS (2017). "Quantity of Candida Colonies in Saliva: 
A Diagnostic Evaluation for Oral Candidiasis". Chin J Dent Res. 20 (1): 27–32. doi:10.3290/j.cjdr.a37739. PMID 28232964.
  14. ↑ Taybos G (2003). "Oral changes associated with tobacco use". Am J Med Sci. 326 (4): 179–82. PMID 14557730.
  15. ↑ Larsen KR, Johansen JD, Reibel J, Zachariae C, Pedersen AM (2017). "Symptomatic oral lesions may be associated with contact allergy to substances in oral hygiene products". Clin Oral Investig. doi:10.1007/s00784-017-2053-y. PMID 28084550.
  16. ↑ A. Tosti, B. M. Piraccini & A. M. Peluso (1997). "Contact and irritant stomatitis". Seminars in cutaneous medicine and surgery. 16 (4): 314–319. PMID 9421224. Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Sailer, Christian, Wasner, Susanne. Differential Diagnosis Pocket. Hermosa Beach, CA: Borm Bruckmeir Publishing LLC, 2002:77 ISBN 1591032016
  18. ↑ Kahan, Scott, Smith, Ellen G. In A Page: Signs and Symptoms. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004:68 ISBN140510368X


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